Phosphorylation of the androgen receptor by PIM1 in hormone refractory prostate cancer.

Integration of cellular signaling pathways with androgen receptor (AR) signaling can be achieved through phosphorylation of AR by cellular kinases. However, the kinases responsible for phosphorylating the AR at numerous sites and the functional consequences of AR phosphorylation are only partially understood. Bioinformatic analysis revealed AR serine 213 (S213) as a putative substrate for PIM1, a kinase overexpressed in prostate cancer. Therefore, phosphorylation of AR serine 213 by PIM1 was examined using a phosphorylation site-specific antibody. Wild-type PIM1, but not catalytically inactive PIM1, specifically phosphorylated AR but not an AR serine-to-alanine mutant (S213A). In vitro kinase assays confirmed that PIM1 can phosphorylate AR S213 in a ligand-independent manner and cell type-specific phosphorylation was observed in prostate cancer cell lines. Upon PIM1 overexpression, AR phosphorylation was observed in the absence of hormone and was further increased in the presence of hormone in LNCaP, LNCaP-abl and VCaP cells. Moreover, phosphorylation of AR was reduced in the presence of PIM kinase inhibitors. An examination of AR-mediated transcription showed that reporter gene activity was reduced in the presence of PIM1 and wild-type AR, but not S213A mutant AR. Androgen-mediated transcription of endogenous PSA, Nkx3.1 and IGFBP5 was also decreased in the presence of PIM1, whereas IL6, cyclin A1 and caveolin 2 were increased. Immunohistochemical analysis of prostate cancer tissue microarrays showed significant P-AR S213 expression that was associated with hormone refractory prostate cancers, likely identifying cells with catalytically active PIM1. In addition, prostate cancers expressing a high level of P-AR S213 were twice as likely to be from biochemically recurrent cancers. Thus, AR phosphorylation by PIM1 at S213 impacts gene transcription and is highly prevalent in aggressive prostate cancer.

Src and Pyk2 mediate G-protein-coupled receptor activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) but are not required for coupling to the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling cascade.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases Src and Pyk2 have been implicated in linking a variety of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) to the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling cascade. In this report we apply a genetic strategy using cells isolated from Src-, Pyk2-, or EGFR-deficient mice to explore the roles played by these protein tyrosine kinases in GPCR-induced activation of EGFR, Pyk2, and MAP kinase. We show that Src kinases are critical for activation of Pyk2 in response to GPCR-stimulation and that Pyk2 and Src are essential for GPCR-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR. By contrast, Pyk2, Src, and EGFR are dispensable for GPCR-induced activation of MAP kinase. Moreover, GPCR-induced MAP kinase activation is normal in fibroblasts deficient in both Src and Pyk2 (Src-/-Pyk2-/- cells) as well as in fibroblasts deficient in all three Src kinases expressed in these cells (Src-/-Yes-/-Fyn-/- cells). Finally, experiments are presented demonstrating that, upon stimulation of GPCR, activated Pyk2 forms a complex with Src, which in turn phosphorylates EGFR directly. These experiments reveal a role for Src kinases in Pyk2 activation and a role for Pyk2 and Src in tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR following GPCR stimulation. In addition, EGFR, Src family kinases, and Pyk2 are not required for linking GPCRs with the MAP kinase signaling cascade.

Antagonism of glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activation by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase.

The mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase), JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase), and p38 phosphorylate and activate transcription factors that promote proliferative and inflammatory responses, whereas glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activation inhibits cell growth and inflammation. We demonstrate that JNK and ERK but not p38 phosphorylate GR in vitro primarily at Ser-246. Selective activation of either ERK or JNK in vivo inhibits GR-mediated transcriptional activation, which depends on receptor phosphorylation at Ser-246 by JNK but not ERK. Thus, JNK inhibits GR transcriptional activation by direct receptor phosphorylation, whereas ERK does so indirectly. We propose that phosphorylation of GR by JNK or of a GR cofactor by ERK provides mechanisms to ensure the rapid inhibition of GR-dependent gene expression when it conflicts with mitogenic or proinflammatory signals.

Activation of phospholipase C gamma by PI 3-kinase-induced PH domain-mediated membrane targeting.

Signaling via growth factor receptors frequently results in the concomitant activation of phospholipase C gamma (PLC gamma) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase. While it is well established that tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC gamma is necessary for its activation, we show here that PLC gamma is regulated additionally by the lipid products of PI 3-kinase. We demonstrate that the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of PLC gamma binds to phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PdtIns(3,4,5)P3], and is targeted to the membrane in response to growth factor stimulation, while a mutated version of this PH domain that does not bind PdtIns(3,4,5)P3 is not membrane targeted. Consistent with these observations, activation of PI 3-kinase causes PLC gamma PH domain-mediated membrane targeting and PLC gamma activation. By contrast, either the inhibition of PI 3-kinase by overexpression of a dominant-negative mutant or the prevention of PLC gamma membrane targeting by overexpression of the PLC gamma PH domain prevents growth factor-induced PLC gamma activation. These experiments reveal a novel mechanism for cross-talk and mutual regulation of activity between two enzymes that participate in the control of phosphoinositide metabolism.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase mediates epidermal growth factor-induced activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway.

The signaling events which mediate activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) are not yet well characterized. To broaden our understanding of upstream mediators which link extracellular signals to the JNK pathway, we investigated the role of phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase in epidermal growth factor (EGF)-mediated JNK activation. In this report we demonstrate that a dominant negative form of PI 3-kinase as well as the inhibitor wortmannin blocks EGF-induced JNK activation dramatically. However, wortmannin does not have an effect on JNK activation induced by UV irradiation or osmotic shock. In addition, a membrane-targeted, constitutively active PI 3-kinase (p110beta) was shown to produce in vivo products and to activate JNK, while a kinase-mutated form of this protein showed no activation. On the basis of these experiments, we propose that PI 3-kinase activity plays a role in EGF-induced JNK activation in these cells.

T-antigen inhibits metalloproteinase expression and invasion in human placental cells transformed with temperature-sensitive simian virus 40.

Cellular transformation frequently induces invasive behavior in cells. The effects of simian virus (SV) 40 T-antigen on the relationship between metalloproteinase expression and cell invasion were tested in human placental trophoblast-like cells transformed with a temperature-sensitive form of the SV40 virus, tsA30. As a comparison, metalloproteinase expression was also tested in human fibroblasts transformed with wild-type SV40 T-antigen. When tsA30.1 cells were cultured at the nonpermissive temperature for T-antigen expression, 40 degrees C, they expressed abundant metalloproteinases, including the 72 kDa gelatinase A (MMP-2), the 92 kDa gelatinase B (MMP-9) and stromelysin-1 (MMP-3). In contrast, tsA 30.1 cells cultured at the permissive temperature of 33 degrees C produced T-antigen and showed markedly decreased amounts of these proteinases. A similar suppression was seen in the human fibroblasts transformed with wild-type T-antigen. The tsA30 cells cultured at either temperature expressed a similar amount of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 and -2. Cell invasion assays were performed to determine whether the altered ratio of proteinases to inhibitors under these conditions affected the extracellular matrix-degrading and invasive characteristics of the cells. In their differentiated state at the nonpermissive temperature for T-antigen expression, tsA30.1 cells were highly invasive, whereas at the permissive temperature they were not invasive. Therefore, the expression of T-antigen suppressed metalloproteinase production and changed the cells from an invasive to a noninvasive phenotype. We conclude that in tsA30.1 cells, SV 40 T-antigen expression suppresses metalloproteinase production, thereby decreasing the rate of degradation of the extracellular matrix. Taken together, these data indicate that invasive behavior is related to proteinase gene expression rather than to transformation by T-antigen. Function-blocking antibody to beta 1 integrins did not affect adhesion of tsA30.1 cells but inhibited invasion at the nonpermissive temperature, even though they continued to secrete proteinases. This observation indicates that beta 1 integrin-mediated cell migration is required along with proteinases for cells to be invasive.

Synergistic transcriptional activation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 promoter via functional interaction of AP-1 and Ets-1 transcription factors.

The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) is an inhibitor of the extracellular matrix-degrading metalloproteinases. We characterized response elements that control TIMP-1 gene expression. One contains a binding site that selectively binds c-Fos and c-Jun in vitro and confers a response to multiple AP-1 family members in vivo. Adjacent to this is a binding site for Ets domain proteins. Although c-Ets-1 alone did not activate transcription from this element, it enhanced transcription synergistically with AP-1 either in the context of the natural promoter or when the sequence was linked upstream of a heterologous promoter. Furthermore, a complex of c-Jun and c-Fos interacted with c-Ets-1 in vitro. These results suggest that AP-1 tethers c-Ets-1 to the TIMP-1 promoter via protein-protein interaction to achieve Ets-dependent transcriptional regulation. Collectively, our results indicate that TIMP-1 expression is controlled by several DNA response elements that respond to variations in the level and activity of AP-1 and Ets transcriptional regulatory proteins.

Integrin switching regulates normal trophoblast invasion.

Cells invade extracellular matrices in a regulated manner at specific times and places during normal development. A dramatic example is trophoblast invasion of the uterine wall. Previous studies have shown that differentiation of trophoblasts to an invasive phenotype is accompanied by temporally and spatially regulated switching of their integrin repertoire. In the first trimester human placenta, alpha 6 integrins are restricted to cytotrophoblast (CTB) stem cells and downregulated in invasive CTBs, whereas alpha 5 beta 1 and alpha 1 beta 1 integrins are upregulated in differentiating and invasive CTBs. The goal of the present study was to determine whether these changes have functional consequences for CTB invasiveness. Using an in vitro invasion model, we determined first that aggregates of invading first trimester CTBs in vitro undergo the same pattern of integrin switching as was observed in situ, thereby validating the utility of the model. We then showed that antibody perturbation of interactions involving laminin or collagen type IV and their integrin alpha 1/beta 1 receptor inhibited invasion by CTBs, whereas perturbing interactions between fibronectin and the alpha 5/beta 1 fibronectin receptor accelerated invasion. Finally, we report that later gestation CTBs, which display greatly decreased invasive capacity, are also unable to upregulate alpha 1 beta 1 complexes, providing further evidence that this integrin is critical for CTB invasion. This gestational regulation is transcriptional. These data indicate that integrin switching observed during differentiation in situ has significant functional consequences for CTB invasion. The data suggest further that differentiating CTBs upregulate counterbalancing invasion-accelerating and invasion-restraining adhesion mechanisms. We propose that this contributes to regulating the depth of CTB invasion during normal implantation.

Human placental cells transformed with temperature-sensitive simian virus 40 are immortalized and mimic the phenotype of invasive cytotrophoblasts at both permissive and nonpermissive temperatures.

Establishment of the human placenta is essential for subsequent development of the embryo. Previous studies from our laboratories have demonstrated that chorionic villus cytotrophoblast stem cells undergo a stepwise differentiation process in vivo that results in their ability to invade the uterine wall. This process can be mimicked by isolated primary first-trimester cytotrophoblasts in vitro. Efforts to study the regulation of this differentiation pathway have been hampered by the inability of the isolated cytotrophoblast to replicate in culture. We therefore performed experiments to determine the suitability of the temperature-sensitive simian virus 40-transformed cell line SPA 255-26 (SPA-26), derived from early-gestation cytotrophoblasts, for studying the cytotrophoblast differentiation pathway that results in uterine invasion. Our results show that this cell line exhibits many properties of differentiated early-gestation cytotrophoblasts at both permissive and nonpermissive temperature. These cells were invasive in vitro and expressed the repertoire of hormones, adhesion molecules, and proteinases characteristic of an advanced stage of cytotrophoblast differentiation in vivo. Thus, these cells should be useful in studying the regulation of the adhesive and invasive behavior of human cytotrophoblasts.

Ovarian follicle cell enhancers from the Drosophila yolk protein genes: different segments of one enhancer have different cell-type specificities that interact to give normal expression.

This paper examines ovarian transcription of the divergently oriented yolk protein genes 1 and 2 (yp1 and yp2) of Drosophila melanogaster. We report germ line transformation results demonstrating that yp1 and yp2 are transcribed in the same subpopulations of ovarian follicle cells. Our results show that this expression pattern is directed by two enhancers: ovarian enhancer 1, located between the genes, and ovarian enhancer 2, located within the first exon of yp2. Analysis of the expression pattern resulting from alterations in ovarian enhancer 1 demonstrates that different segments of this enhancer have different positive or negative effects on the cell-type specificity of transcription.

DNA regions that regulate the ovarian transcriptional specificity of Drosophila yolk protein genes.

Yolk protein genes 1 and 2 (yp1 and yp2) of Drosophila melanogaster are divergently transcribed neighboring genes. Both are transcribed in only two tissues, the ovarian follicle cells and the fat bodies of adult females. Previous work has identified a yolk protein enhancer between the genes that is sufficient to direct transcription in one of the tissues, female fat bodies. Using germ-line transformation methods, we identify two cis-acting regions with positive effects on transcription in ovaries. One, a 301-bp region located between the genes, influences both genes and is an enhancer determining the stage and cell type specificity of ovarian transcription. The other, a 105-bp region located in the first exon of yp2, acts across the yp2 promoter region to stimulate yp1 transcription in ovaries. Additional observations suggest how a single enhancer influences both promoters.