"Ectomosphere": Insects and Microorganism Interactions.

This study focuses on interacting with insects and their ectosymbiont (lato sensu) microorganisms for environmentally safe plant production and protection. Some cases help compare ectosymbiont microorganisms that are insect-borne, -driven, or -spread relevant to endosymbionts' behaviour. Ectosymbiotic bacteria can interact with insects by allowing them to improve the value of their pabula. In addition, some bacteria are essential for creating ecological niches that can host the development of pests. Insect-borne plant pathogens include bacteria, viruses, and fungi. These pathogens interact with their vectors to enhance reciprocal fitness. Knowing vector-phoront interaction could considerably increase chances for outbreak management, notably when sustained by quarantine vector ectosymbiont pathogens, such as the actual Xylella fastidiosa Mediterranean invasion episode. Insect pathogenic viruses have a close evolutionary relationship with their hosts, also being highly specific and obligate parasites. Sixteen virus families have been reported to infect insects and may be involved in the biological control of specific pests, including some economic weevils. Insects and fungi are among the most widespread organisms in nature and interact with each other, establishing symbiotic relationships ranging from mutualism to antagonism. The associations can influence the extent to which interacting organisms can exert their effects on plants and the proper management practices. Sustainable pest management also relies on entomopathogenic fungi; research on these species starts from their isolation from insect carcasses, followed by identification using conventional light or electron microscopy techniques. Thanks to the development of omics sciences, it is possible to identify entomopathogenic fungi with evolutionary histories that are less-shared with the target insect and can be proposed as pest antagonists. Many interesting omics can help detect the presence of entomopathogens in different natural matrices, such as soil or plants. The same techniques will help localize ectosymbionts, localization of recesses, or specialized morphological adaptation, greatly supporting the robust interpretation of the symbiont role. The manipulation and modulation of ectosymbionts could be a more promising way to counteract pests and borne pathogens, mitigating the impact of formulates and reducing food insecurity due to the lesser impact of direct damage and diseases. The promise has a preventive intent for more manageable and broader implications for pests, comparing what we can obtain using simpler, less-specific techniques and a less comprehensive approach to Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

foodsafety4eu: paving the way for the food safety system of the future.

Food safety is a top priority for the European Commission, which policies aim at sustaining a high level of protection of human health and consumers' interests, while ensuring an effective functioning of the internal EU market. Under the New Transparency Regulation (EU/2019/138), the 3-year EU-funded foodsafety4eu project (FS4EU) kicked off in January 2021, represents a significant step for the European Union (EU) food safety system (FSS), towards more transparency, better engagement, and closer cooperation. This Horizon 2020 Project, coordinated by CNR-ISPA (Italy), focuses on building a multi-stakeholder platform for the future EU FSS. The foodsafety4eu Network currently consists of 23 consortium partners and around 50 stakeholders: Food Safety Authorities (FSA), consumer associations, academia, research centres and networks, food industries and sector associations, thinktanks, etc. Through a structured, digitally supported, participatory process, the platform hosts the co-design of future strategic research and innovation agenda (SRIA), as well as risk communication models tailored to the specificities of various target groups. Among the goals: providing scientific advice and technical support for EU food safety policies, by enabling actors to access, share and exchange scientific knowledge, resources, and data more efficiently, to better synchronise food safety research and policies, and to contribute to a more transparent communication through the FSS. Overall, the FS4EU project underpins the EFSA missions in risk assessment, including risk communication, with the ambition to be a basis for a Knowledge Centre for Food Safety in Europe. Accordingly, the EU-FORA 2021-2022 fellow (based in CNR-ISPA under the Work Programme RECIPE: Risk AssEssment/Risk CommunIcation: understanding the context and addressing Priorities of the futurE - a learning-by-doing approach) committed to multiple Work Packages, actively participated to various activities, thus successfully contributing to the FS4EU project meeting its objectives by the end of 2023.

Phylogeny and mycotoxin profiles of pathogenic Alternaria and Curvularia species isolated from date palm in southern Tunisia.

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), is a widely cultivated crop across North Africa, with about 300 thousand tons of fruits produced per year, in Tunisia. A wide range of fungal pathogens has been associated with leaf spots of date palm, Alternaria species being the most frequently reported. Symptomatic leaves of Deglet Nour variety were randomly collected in six localities in Tunisia. We used a polyphasic approach to identify 45 Alternaria and five Curvularia strains isolated from date palm, confirming their pathogenicity. Sequencing of allergen Alt-a1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gpd) and calmodulin genes allowed us to group 35 strains in Alternaria Section, and 10 strains in Ulocladioides section. Based on sequencing analyses of Internal Transcribed Spacer, gpd and elongation factor genomic regions, all Curvularia strains were identified as Curvularia spicifera. All Alternaria and Curvularia species tested on date palm plantlets proved to be pathogenic, fulfilling Koch's postulates. Although no significant differences were observed among the species, the highest mean disease severity index was observed in A. arborescens, while the lowest corresponded to C. spicifera. The capability of these strains to produce mycotoxins in vitro was evaluated. None of the A. consortialis strains produced any known Alternaria mycotoxin, whereas more than 80% of the strains included in Alternaria section Alternaria produced variable amounts of multiple mycotoxins such as alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, tenuazonic acid and tentoxin. Curvularia spicifera strains produced detectable traces of fumonisins B. This work reports a first comprehensive multidisciplinary study of mycotoxigenic Alternaria species and C. spicifera associated with leaf spot disease on date palm.

Industrial-Scale Cleaning Solutions for the Reduction of Fusarium Toxins in Maize.

Grain cleaning is the most effective non-destructive post-harvest mitigation strategy to reduce high levels of mycotoxins on account of the removal of mold-infected grains and grain fractions with high mycotoxin content. In this study, the reduction in the concentration of some co-occurring Fusarium toxins in maize, namely deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FBs), was evaluated at an industrial-scale level by mechanical removal (sieving and density separation) of dust, coarse, small, broken, shriveled and low-density kernels and/or optical sorting of defected kernels. Samples were dynamically collected according to the Commission Regulation No. 401/2006 along the entire process line. Mycotoxin analyses of water-slurry aggregate samples were performed by validated LC methods. Depending on the contamination levels in raw incoming maize, the overall reduction rates ranged from 36 to 67% for DON, from 67 to 87% for ZEA and from 27 to 67% for FBs. High levels of DON, ZEA and FBs were found in all rejected fractions with values, respectively, up to 3030%, 1510% and 2680%, compared to their content in uncleaned maize. Results showed that grain cleaning equipment based on mechanical and or optical sorting technologies can provide a significant reduction in Fusarium toxin contamination in maize.

Characterization and mechanism of aflatoxin degradation by a novel strain of Trichoderma reesei CGMCC3.5218.

Aflatoxins, which are produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, are recognized as the most toxic mycotoxins, which are strongly carcinogenic and pose a serious threat to human and animal health. Therefore, strategies to degrade or eliminate aflatoxins in agro-products are urgently needed. We investigated 65 Trichoderma isolates belonging to 23 species for their aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-degrading capabilities. Trichoderma reesei CGMCC3.5218 had the best performance, and degraded 100% of 50 ng/kg AFB1 within 3 days and 87.6% of 10 µg/kg AFB1 within 5 days in a liquid-medium system. CGMCC3.5218 degraded more than 85.0% of total aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2) at 108.2-2323.5 ng/kg in artificially and naturally contaminated peanut, maize, and feed within 7 days. Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology showed that the optimal degradation conditions for CGMCC3.5218 were pH 6.7 and 31.3°C for 5.1 days in liquid medium. Possible functional detoxification components were analyzed, indicating that the culture supernatant of CGMCC3.5218 could efficiently degrade AFB1 (500 ng/kg) with a ratio of 91.8%, compared with 19.5 and 8.9% by intracellular components and mycelial adsorption, respectively. The aflatoxin-degrading activity of the fermentation supernatant was sensitive to proteinase K and proteinase K plus sodium dodecyl sulfonate, but was stable at high temperatures, suggesting that thermostable enzymes or proteins in the fermentation supernatant played a major role in AFB1 degradation. Furthermore, toxicological experiments by a micronucleus assay in mouse bone marrow erythrocytes and by intraperitoneal injection and skin irritation tests in mice proved that the degradation products by CGMCC3.5218 were nontoxic. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study on Trichoderma aflatoxin detoxification, and the candidate strain T. reesei CGMCC3.5218 has high efficient and environment-friendly characteristics, and qualifies as a potential biological detoxifier for application in aflatoxin removal from contaminated feeds.

Deoxynivalenol and T-2 Toxin as Major Concerns in Durum Wheat from Italy.

Fusarium Head Blight is a devastating disease of wheat caused by a complex of Fusarium species producing a wide range of mycotoxins. Fusarium species occurrence is variable in different geographical areas and subjected to a continuous evolution in their distribution. A total of 141 durum wheat field samples were collected in different regions of Italy in three years, and analyzed for Fusarium species and related mycotoxin occurrence. Mycotoxin contamination varied according to year and geographical origin. The highest mycotoxin contamination was detected in 2014. Deoxynivalenol was detected with an average of 240 µg/kg only in Central and Northern Italy; and T-2 and HT-2 toxins with an average of 150 µg/kg in Southern Italy. Approximately 80% of samples from Southern Italy in 2013/2014 showed T-2 and HT-2 levels over the EU recommended limits. Fusarium graminearum occurred mostly in Northern Italy, while F. langsethiae occurred in Southern Italy. These data showed that a real mycotoxin risk related to Fusarium exists on the whole in Italy, but varies according with geographical areas and environmental conditions. Consistent monitoring of Fusarium species and related mycotoxin distribution on a long period is worthwhile to generate more accurate knowledge on Fusarium species profile and mycotoxins associated and better establish the climatic change impact on wheat Fusarium epidemiology.

Diversity of Fusarium Species Isolated from Symptomatic Plants Belonging to a Wide Range of Agri-Food and Ornamental Crops in Lebanon.

Lebanon is a small Mediterranean country with different pedoclimatic conditions that allow the growth of both temperate and tropical plants. Currently, few studies are available on the occurrence and diversity of Fusarium species on Lebanese crops. A wide population of Fusarium strains was isolated from different symptomatic plants in the last 10 years. In the present investigation, a set of 134 representative strains were molecularly identified by sequencing the translation elongation factor, used in Fusarium as a barcoding gene. Great variability was observed, since the strains were grouped into nine different Fusarium Species Complexes (SCs). Fusarium oxysporum SC and Fusarium solani SC were the most frequent (53% and 24%, respectively). Members of important mycotoxigenic SCs were also detected: F. fujikuroi SC (7%), F. sambucinum SC (5%), F. incarnatum-equiseti SC (3%), and F. tricinctum SC (4%). Two strains belonging to F. lateritium SC, a single strain belonging to F. burgessii SC, and a single strain belonging to F. redolens SC were also detected. This paper reports, for the first time, the occurrence of several Fusarium species on Lebanese host plants. The clear picture of the Fusarium species distribution provided in this study can pose a basis for both a better understanding of the potential phytopathological and toxicological risks and planning future Fusarium management strategies in Lebanon.

Mycotoxin Analysis of Grain via Dust Sampling: Review, Recent Advances and the Way Forward: The Contribution of the MycoKey Project.

The sampling protocols for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are very costly and time-consuming. More efforts are needed to implement alternative sampling plans able to support official control, or to adapt the current ones. The aim of the research carried out within the European Horizon 2020 MycoKey project was to evaluate the applicability at industrial scale of the dust sampling approach to detect multiple mycotoxins in grains. To this end, two trials were performed on an EU industrial site: (i) control of the unloading of wheat from train wagons; (ii) control of the unloading of wheat from trucks. In line with previous studies, the MycoKey results indicated that dust sampling and mycotoxin analysis represent a fitness for purpose approach for non-destructive and rapid identification of wheat commodities compliant to the maximum permitted levels. Based on reviewed and newly generated results, this article discusses potential applications and limits of the dust sampling methodology, identifying future research needs.

Simultaneous Removal of Mycotoxins by a New Feed Additive Containing a Tri-Octahedral Smectite Mixed with Lignocellulose.

Simultaneous removal of mycotoxins has been poorly addressed, and a limited number of studies have reported the efficacy of feed additives in sequestering a large spectrum of mycotoxins. In this study, a new mycotoxin-adsorbing agent was obtained by properly mixing a tri-octahedral smectite with a lignocellulose-based material. At a dosage of 1 mg mL-1, these materials simultaneously adsorbed frequently occurring mycotoxins and did not exert a cytotoxic effect on intestinal cells. Chyme samples obtained by a simulated GI digestion did not affect the viability of Caco-2TC7 cells as measured by the MTT test. In addition, the chyme of the lignocellulose showed a high content of polyphenols (210 mg mL-1 catechin equivalent) and good antioxidant activity. The properties of the individual constituents were maintained in the final composite, and were unaffected by their combination. When tested with a pool of seven mycotoxins at 1 µg mL-1 each and pH 5, the composite (5 mg mL-1) simultaneously sequestered AFB1 (95%), FB1 (99%), ZEA (93%), OTA (80%), T-2 (63%), and DON (22%). HT-2 adsorption did not occur. Mycotoxin adsorption increased exponentially as dosage increased, and occurred at physiological pH values. AFB1, ZEA and T-2 adsorption was not affected by pH in the range 3-9, whereas OTA and FB1 were adsorbed at pH values of 3-5. The adsorbed amount of AFB1, ZEA and T-2 was not released when pH rose from 3 to 7. FB1 and OTA desorption was less than 38%. Langmuir adsorption isotherms revealed high capacity and affinity for adsorption of the target mycotoxins. Results of this study are promising and show the potential of the new composite to remove mycotoxins in practical scenarios where several mycotoxins can co-occur.

Mass spectrometry-based electronic nose to authenticate 100% Italian durum wheat pasta and characterization of volatile compounds.

Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with mass spectrometry-based electronic nose (MS-eNose), in combination with multivariate statistical analysis was used as untargeted method for the rapid authentication of 100% Italian durum wheat pasta. Among the tested classification models, i.e. PCA-LDA, PLS-DA and SVMc, SVMc provided the highest accuracy results in both calibration (90%) and validation (92%) processes. Potential markers discriminating pasta samples were identified by HS-SPME/GC-MS analysis. Specifically, the content of a pattern of 8 out of 59 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was significantly different between samples of 100% Italian durum wheat pasta and pasta produced with durum wheat of different origins, most of which were related to different lipidic oxidation in the two classes of pasta. The proposed MS-eNose method is a rapid and reliable tool to be used for authenticating Italian pasta useful to promote its typicity and preserving consumers from fraudulent practices.

Potential of Trichoderma spp. for Biocontrol of Aflatoxin-Producing Aspergillus flavus.

The inhibitory action of 20 antagonistic Trichoderma isolates against the aflatoxigenic isolate A. flavus ITEM 9 (Af-9) and their efficacy in reducing aflatoxin formation in vitro were examined. Production of metabolites with inhibitory effect by the Trichoderma isolates was also investigated. Antagonistic effect against Af-9 was assessed by inhibition of radial growth of the colonies and by fungal interactions in dual confrontation tests. A total of 8 out of 20 isolates resulted in a significant growth inhibition of 3-day-old cultures of Af-9, ranging from 13% to 65%. A total of 14 isolates reduced significantly the aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) content of 15-day-old Af-9 cultures; 4 were ineffective, and 2 increased AfB1. Reduction of AfB1 content was up to 84.9% and 71.1% in 7- and 15-day-old cultures, respectively. Since the inhibition of Af-9 growth by metabolites of Trichoderma was not necessarily associated with inhibition of AfB1 production and vice versa, we investigated the mechanism of reduction of AfB1 content at the molecular level by examining two strains: one (T60) that reduced both growth and mycotoxin content; and the other (T44) that reduced mycotoxin content but not Af-9 growth. The expression analyses for the two regulatory genes aflR and aflS, and the structural genes aflA, aflD, aflO and aflQ of the aflatoxin biosynthesis cluster indicated that neither strain was able to downregulate the aflatoxin synthesis, leading to the conclusion that the AfB1 content reduction by these Trichoderma strains was based on other mechanisms, such as enzyme degradation or complexation. Although further studies are envisaged to identify the metabolites involved in the biocontrol of A. flavus and prevention of aflatoxin accumulation, as well as for assessment of the efficacy under controlled and field conditions, Trichoderma spp. qualify as promising agents and possible alternative options to other biocontrol agents already in use.

Fusarium graminearum Species Complex: A Bibliographic Analysis and Web-Accessible Database for Global Mapping of Species and Trichothecene Toxin Chemotypes.

Fusarium graminearum is ranked among the five most destructive fungal pathogens that affect agroecosystems. It causes floral diseases in small grain cereals including wheat, barley, and oats, as well as maize and rice. We conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed studies reporting species within the F. graminearum species complex (FGSC) and created two main data tables. The first contained summarized data from the articles including bibliographic, geographic, methodological (ID methods), host of origin and species, while the second data table contains information about the described strains such as publication, isolate code(s), host/substrate, year of isolation, geographical coordinates, species and trichothecene genotype. Analyses of the bibliographic data obtained from 123 publications from 2000 to 2021 by 498 unique authors and published in 40 journals are summarized. We describe the frequency of species and chemotypes for 16,274 strains for which geographical information was available, either provided as raw data or extracted from the publications, and sampled across six continents and 32 countries. The database and interactive interface are publicly available, allowing for searches, summarization, and mapping of strains according to several criteria including article, country, host, species and trichothecene genotype. The database will be updated as new articles are published and should be useful for guiding future surveys and exploring factors associated with species distribution such as climate and land use. Authors are encouraged to submit data at the strain level to the database, which is accessible at https://fgsc.netlify.app.

Advanced mycotoxin control and decontamination techniques in view of an increased aflatoxin risk in Europe due to climate change.

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. found in staple food and feed commodities worldwide. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic, and pose a serious threat to the health of both humans and animals. The global economy and trade are significantly affected as well. Various models and datasets related to aflatoxins in maize have been developed and used but have not yet been linked. The prevention of crop loss due to aflatoxin contamination is complex and challenging. Hence, the set-up of advanced decontamination is crucial to cope with the challenge of climate change, growing population, unstable political scenarios, and food security problems also in European countries. After harvest, decontamination methods can be applied during transport, storage, or processing, but their application for aflatoxin reduction is still limited. Therefore, this review aims to investigate the effects of environmental factors on aflatoxin production because of climate change and to critically discuss the present-day and novel decontamination techniques to unravel gaps and limitations to propose them as a tool to tackle an increased aflatoxin risk in Europe.

Fungal Laccases: The Forefront of Enzymes for Sustainability.

Enzymatic catalysis is one of the main pillars of sustainability for industrial production. Enzyme application allows minimization of the use of toxic solvents and to valorize the agro-industrial residues through reuse. In addition, they are safe and energy efficient. Nonetheless, their use in biotechnological processes is still hindered by the cost, stability, and low rate of recycling and reuse. Among the many industrial enzymes, fungal laccases (LCs) are perfect candidates to serve as a biotechnological tool as they are outstanding, versatile catalytic oxidants, only requiring molecular oxygen to function. LCs are able to degrade phenolic components of lignin, allowing them to efficiently reuse the lignocellulosic biomass for the production of enzymes, bioactive compounds, or clean energy, while minimizing the use of chemicals. Therefore, this review aims to give an overview of fungal LC, a promising green and sustainable enzyme, its mechanism of action, advantages, disadvantages, and solutions for its use as a tool to reduce the environmental and economic impact of industrial processes with a particular insight on the reuse of agro-wastes.

Determination of Multiple Mycotoxins and Their Natural Occurrence in Edible Vegetable Oils Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

The prevalence of mycotoxins is often increased by the climatic conditions prevailing in tropical regions. Reports have revealed the contamination of mycotoxins in some types of vegetable oil. However, vegetable oil is one of the essential ingredients used in food preparation. Thus, this study determined the occurrence of multi-mycotoxins in six types of vegetable oils commercially available in Thailand to assess the consumer health risk. In total, 300 vegetable oil samples (olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, and rice bran oil) collected from various markets in Thailand were analyzed for the presence of nine mycotoxins, namely, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), beauvericin (BEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and fumonisin B2 (FB2) using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)-based procedure and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization source. The incidences of mycotoxin contamination varied among the different types of oil samples. AFB1, AFB2, ZEA, FB1, and FB2 were most frequently found in contaminated samples. AFB2, BEA, ZEA, FB1, and FB2 contaminated olive oil samples, whereas AFB1, AFB2, AFG2, and OTA contaminated palm oil samples. AFB1, AFB2, and ZEA were found in soybean oils, whereas ZEA, FB1, and FB2 contaminated corn oil samples. AFB1 and AFG1 contaminated sunflower oil samples, whereas AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and OTA were detected in rice bran oil samples. However, the contamination levels of the analyzed mycotoxins were below the regulatory limits.

Simultaneous Determination of Ergot Alkaloids in Swine and Dairy Feeds Using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Ergot alkaloids (EAs) are mycotoxins mainly produced by the fungus Claviceps purpurea. EAs are known to affect the nervous system and to be vasoconstrictors in humans and animals. This work presents recent advances in swine and dairy feeds regarding 11 major EAs, namely ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, ergocornine, ergocryptine, ergocristine, ergosinine, ergotaminine, ergocorninine, ergocryptinine, and ergocristinine. A reliable, sensitive, and accurate multiple mycotoxin method, based on extraction with a Mycosep 150 multifunctional column prior to analysis using UHPLC-MS/MS, was validated using samples of swine feed (100) and dairy feed (100) for the 11 targeted EAs. Based on the obtained validation results, this method showed good performance recovery and inter-day and intra-day precision that are in accordance with standard criteria to ensure reliable occurrence data on EA contaminants. More than 49% of the swine feed samples were contaminated with EAs, especially ergocryptine(-ine) (40%) and ergosine (-ine) and ergotamine (-ine) (37%). However, many of the 11 EAs were not detectable in any swine feed samples. In addition, there were contaminated (positive) dairy feed samples, especially for ergocryptine (-ine) (50%), ergosine (-ine) (48%), ergotamine (-ine), and ergocristine (-ine) (49%). The mycotoxin levels in the feed samples in this study almost complied with the European Union regulations.

Occurrence and Characterization of Penicillium Species Isolated from Post-Harvest Apples in Lebanon.

The apple is one of the most important fruit tree crops in the Mediterranean region. Lebanon, in particular, is among the top apple producer countries in the Middle East; however, recently, several types of damage, particularly rot symptoms, have been detected on fruits in cold storage. This study aims to identify the causal agents of apple decay in Lebanese post-harvest facilities and characterize a set of 39 representative strains of the toxigenic fungus Penicillium. The results demonstrated that blue mould was the most frequent fungal disease associated with apples showing symptoms of decay after 3-4 months of storage at 0 °C, with an average frequency of 76.5% and 80.6% on cv. Red and cv. Golden Delicious apples, respectively. The morphological identification and phylogenetic analysis of benA gene showed that most Penicillium strains (87.2%) belong to P. expansum species whereas the remaining strains (12.8%) belong to P. solitum. Furthermore, 67.7% of P. expansum strains produced patulin when grown on apple puree for 14 days at 25 °C with values ranging from 10.7 mg kg-1 to 125.9 mg kg-1, whereas all P. solitum did not produce the mycotoxin. This study highlights the presence of Penicillium spp. and their related mycotoxin risk during apple storage and calls for the implementation of proper measures to decrease the risk of mycotoxin contamination of apple fruit products.

Key Global Actions for Mycotoxin Management in Wheat and Other Small Grains.

Mycotoxins in small grains are a significant and long-standing problem. These contaminants may be produced by members of several fungal genera, including Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Interventions that limit contamination can be made both pre-harvest and post-harvest. Many problems and strategies to control them and the toxins they produce are similar regardless of the location at which they are employed, while others are more common in some areas than in others. Increased knowledge of host-plant resistance, better agronomic methods, improved fungicide management, and better storage strategies all have application on a global basis. We summarize the major pre- and post-harvest control strategies currently in use. In the area of pre-harvest, these include resistant host lines, fungicides and their application guided by epidemiological models, and multiple cultural practices. In the area of post-harvest, drying, storage, cleaning and sorting, and some end-product processes were the most important at the global level. We also employed the Nominal Group discussion technique to identify and prioritize potential steps forward and to reduce problems associated with human and animal consumption of these grains. Identifying existing and potentially novel mechanisms to effectively manage mycotoxin problems in these grains is essential to ensure the safety of humans and domesticated animals that consume these grains.

Plasma Technology Increases the Efficacy of Prothioconazole against Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium proliferatum Contamination of Maize (Zea mays) Seedlings.

The contamination of maize by Fusarium species able to produce mycotoxins raises great concern worldwide since they can accumulate these toxic metabolites in field crop products. Furthermore, little information exists today on the ability of Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium graminearum, two well know mycotoxigenic species, to translocate from the seeds to the plants up to the kernels. Marketing seeds coated with fungicide molecules is a common practice; however, since there is a growing need for reducing chemicals in agriculture, new eco-friendly strategies are increasingly tested. Technologies based on ionized gases, known as plasmas, have been used for decades, with newer material surfaces, products, and approaches developed continuously. In this research, we tested a plasma-generated bilayer coating for encapsulating prothioconazole at the surface of maize seeds, to protect them from F. graminearum and F. proliferatum infection. A minimum amount of chemical was used, in direct contact with the seeds, with no dispersion in the soil. The ability of F. graminearum and F. proliferatum species to translocate from seeds to seedlings of maize has been clearly proven in our in vitro experiments. As for the use of plasma technology, the combined use of the plasma-generated coating with embedded prothioconazole was the most efficient approach, with a higher reduction of the infection of the maize seminal root system and stems. The debated capability of the two Fusarium species to translocate from seeds to seedlings has been demonstrated. The plasma-generated coating with embedded prothioconazole resulted in a promising sustainable approach for the protection of maize seedlings.