Activated sludge operational regime has significant impact on the type of nitrifying community and its nitrification rates.

A nitrifying sequencing batch reactor, operated under alternating anoxic/aerobic conditions achieved twice the nitrification rates of its strictly aerobic counterpart. Microbial populations in both reactors were examined with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and kinetic batch studies to determine the effects of ammonium, nitrite, and oxygen. FISH revealed a dominance of rapid nitrifiers like Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (79.5% of the nitrifying population) in the alternating reactor, compared with the dominance of slower nitrifiers like Nitrosospira and Nitrospira (78.2%) in the strictly aerobic reactor. Nitrifiers in the aerobic reactor operated at maximum rates and were negatively affected by ammonium or nitrite, whereas nitrifying rates in the alternating reactor were proportional to ammonium or nitrite concentrations. The alternating conditions were more favorable because they selected for faster nitrifiers due to their oxidation, growth, and decay rates. The findings are of importance to the design engineers, as the reactors are typically designed based on nitrifiers' growth rate determined in strictly aerobic conditions.

Biogeochemistry of hypersaline springs supporting a mid-continent marine ecosystem: an analogue for martian springs?

Hypersaline springs that host unique mid-continent marine ecosystems were examined in central Manitoba, Canada. The springs originate from a reflux of glacial meltwater that intrudes into underlying bedrock and dissolved buried salt beds. Two spring types were distinguished based both on flow rate and geochemistry. High flow springs (greater than 10 L/s) hosted extensive marine microbial mats, which were dominated by algae but also included diverse microbes. These varied somewhat between springs as indicated by changes in profiles of fatty acid methyl esters. Culture studies confirmed the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria in sediments at the high flow sites. In contrast, low flow springs were affected by solar evaporation, increasing salinity, and temperature. These low flow springs behaved more like closed nutrient-limited systems and did not support microbial mats. Direct comparison of the high and low flow springs revealed interesting implications for the potential to record biosignatures in the rock record. High flow springs have abundant, well-developed microbial mats, which desiccate and are cemented along the edges of the spring pools; however, the high mass flux overwhelms any geochemical signature of microbial activity. In contrast, the nutrient-limited low flow sites develop strong geochemical signatures of sulfate reduction, even in the absence of microbial mats, due to less dilution with the lower flows. Geochemical and physical evidence for life did not correlate with the abundance of microbial life but, rather, with the extent to which the biological system formed a closed ecosystem.

Ozonation reduces sludge production and improves denitrification.

The effectiveness of partial ozonation of return activated sludge for enhancing denitrification and waste sludge minimization were examined. A pair of nitrifying sequencing batch reactors was operated in either aerobic or alternating anoxic/aerobic conditions, with one control and one ozonated reactor in each set. The amount of solids produced decreased with the ozone dose. Biomass in the anoxic/aerobic reactor was easier to destroy (up to 25% of the initial excess sludge) than in the aerobic (10%) one, generating approximately twice as much soluble COD by cell lysis. Denitrification rate improved up to 60% due to additional carbon released by ozonation. Nitrification rates deteriorated much more in the aerobic than in the alternating reactor, possibly as a result of direct destruction of nitrifying autotrophs as well as competition created by growth of heterotrophs receiving the additional COD. Overall, ozonation provided the expected benefits in denitrification and had less impact on nitrification in the alternating reactors.

Sorption and desorption of three endocrine disrupters in soils.

Sorption of the estrogens estrone (E1), 17beta-estradiol (E2) and 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EE2) on four soils was examined using batch equilibrium experiments with initial estrogen concentrations ranging from 10 to 1000 ng mL-1. At all concentrations, >85% of the three estrogens sorbed rapidly to a sandy soil. E1 sorbed more strongly to soil than E2 or EE2. Partial oxidation of E2 to E1 was observed in the presence of soils. Autoclaving was more effective at reducing this conversion than inhibition with sodium azide or mercuric chloride, and had little effect on sorption, relative to the chemical microbial inhibitors. Sorption of EE2 was greater for fine-textured than coarse-textured soils, but greater than 90% of EE2 sorbed onto all four soils. The greatest degree of desorption of estrogens from the sandy soil occurred with the lowest initial concentration of 10 ng mL-1 and reached levels >or=80% for E1 and E2. Desorption of EE2 was greater in coarser textured soils than finer-textured soils. Again, relative desorption from all soils was greatest with low initial concentrations. Therefore, at environmentally relevant concentrations, estrogens quickly sorb to soils, and soils have a large capacity to bind estrogens, but these endocrine-disrupting compounds can become easily desorbed and released into the aqueous phase.

Anaerobic biotransformation of estrogens.

Estrogens are important environmental contaminants that disrupt endocrine systems and feminize male fish. We investigated the potential for anaerobic biodegradation of the estrogens 17-alpha-ethynylestradiol (EE2) and 17-beta-estradiol (E2) in order to understand their fate in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Cultures were established using lake water and sediment under methanogenic, sulfate-, iron-, and nitrate-reducing conditions. Anaerobic degradation of EE2 (added at 5 mg/L) was not observed in multiple trials over long incubation periods (over three years). E2 (added at 5 mg/L) was transformed to estrone (E1) under all four anaerobic conditions (99-176 microg L-1 day-1), but the extent of conversion was different for each electron acceptor. The oxidation of E2 to E1 was not inhibited by E1. Under some conditions, reversible inter-conversion of E2 and E1 was observed, and the final steady state concentration of E2 depended on the electron-accepting condition but was independent of the total amount of estrogens added. In addition, racemization occurred and E1 was also transformed to 17-alpha-estradiol under all but nitrate-reducing conditions. Although E2 could be readily transformed to E1 and in many cases 17-alpha-estradiol under anaerobic conditions, the complete degradation of estrogens under these conditions was minimal, suggesting that they would accumulate in anoxic environments.

Stable carbon isotope fractionation by sulfate-reducing bacteria.

Biogeochemical transformations occurring in the anoxic zones of stratified sedimentary microbial communities can profoundly influence the isotopic and organic signatures preserved in the fossil record. Accordingly, we have determined carbon isotope discrimination that is associated with both heterotrophic and lithotrophic growth of pure cultures of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). For heterotrophic-growth experiments, substrate consumption was monitored to completion. Sealed vessels containing SRB cultures were harvested at different time intervals, and delta(13)C values were determined for gaseous CO(2), organic substrates, and products such as biomass. For three of the four SRB, carbon isotope effects between the substrates, acetate or lactate and CO(2), and the cell biomass were small, ranging from 0 to 2 per thousand. However, for Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans, the carbon incorporated into biomass was isotopically heavier than the available substrates by 8 to 9 per thousand. SRB grown lithoautotrophically consumed less than 3% of the available CO(2) and exhibited substantial discrimination (calculated as isotope fractionation factors [alpha]), as follows: for Desulfobacterium autotrophicum, alpha values ranged from 1.0100 to 1.0123; for Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus, the alpha value was 0.0138, and for Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans, the alpha value was 1.0310. Mixotrophic growth of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans on acetate and CO(2) resulted in biomass with a delta(13)C composition intermediate to that of the substrates. The extent of fractionation depended on which enzymatic pathways were used, the direction in which the pathways operated, and the growth rate, but fractionation was not dependent on the growth phase. To the extent that environmental conditions affect the availability of organic substrates (e.g., acetate) and reducing power (e.g., H(2)), ecological forces can also influence carbon isotope discrimination by SRB.