Psychometric Properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Norwegian Children.

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) for young Norwegian children, a scale that is aligned with skills assessed in the Test of Gross Motor Development- Third Edition. We used convenience sampling to recruit 396 Norwegian-speaking children (7-10-year-olds) who completed the PMSC. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed factorial validity for the proposed three-factor model of the PMSC, encompassing measures of self-perceived ball, locomotor, and active play competence. Internal item consistency coefficients of these sub-scales were acceptable, and subsequent measurement invariant analysis found a gender difference such that boys rated their competence higher than girls in running, jumping forward, hitting a ball (racket), kicking, throwing a ball and rope climbing, while girls rated themselves higher, compared to boys, in galloping and skating/blading. Furthermore, there was a slightly better model fit for boys than for girls. Several items were significantly related to children's age, and the three-factor model exhibited differential age related factor mean differences across older and younger children. Overall, we found the PMSC to have acceptable psychometric properties for confident use in assessing perceived motor competence among 7-10-year-old Norwegian children, though we observed age and gender differences in children's responses that warrant careful interpretation of results and further research investigation.

Assessment of psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the sensation seeking scale for children in a Norwegian sample.

Introduction: The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a Norwegian translation of the Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (SSSC), designed for children between 7 and 12 years of age. Methods: A sample of 393 children (7-10 years old) were recruited to participate in the study. The SSSC was administered through interviews with each child, wherein their responses to the SSSC questionnaire were recorded on a tablet. Results: Analysis of internal consistency reliability did not show acceptable reliability for all subscales, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the Thrill Seeking and Behavioral Intensity subscales were associated and somewhat overlapping, while Behavioral Inhibition appeared as a single factor. A further explanatory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a two-factor solution. CFA of the two-factor solution resulted in the removal of some items in both factors due to low factor loadings. The final factors resulting from this analysis were Thrill and Intensity Seeking (13 items) and Behavioral Inhibition (7 items). The results also show that boys scored higher than girls on Thrill and Intensity Seeking while girls scored higher than boys on Behavioral Inhibition. Furthermore, age was positively associated with both subscales, meaning that older children tended to score higher. Discussion: The results in this study suggest that measures of children's sensation seeking might be sensitive to cultural contexts and that, at least in a Norwegian population, a two-factor solution of the SSSC is recommended.

Psychometric properties of the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire for Norwegian adolescents.

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ) for Norwegian adolescents. To this end, a sample of 349 Norwegian-speaking adolescents (13-16 years old) were recruited and completed the AMCQ. Initial results showed that confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) did not indicate statistical support for previous statistical models reported in the literature. Further analysis indicated factorial validity for a novel three-factor model identified through exploratory factor analysis, encompassing measures of fine motor skill (α = 0.65), gross motor skill (α = 0.74), and activities of daily living (ADL; α = 0.79) with acceptable internal consistency coefficients. Subsequent analysis indicated indices of measurement invariance in the study sample, as males rated their competence higher compared to females in 19 of the 27 items, and better model fit was obtained for the female adolescents. Strong invariance was tenable, and no factor mean differences were found across older and younger adolescents or across BMI scores. Overall results thus suggested that the AMCQ has acceptable psychometric properties and can be confidently used in further work with perceived motor competence in Norwegian 13-16 years-old adolescents.

Individual differences in children's movement variability in a virtual reality playground task.

Children's movements are highly complex, and thus require measurements that capture various gross motor strategies. This study examined whether aspects of individual differences in children's gross motor movement patterns could be captured in virtual reality (VR) and how motor movements could be conceptualized through freezing-freeing patterns of degrees of freedom. To this end, a three-minute VR scenario was developed for children to freely explore, play, and move around without further instructions, and their movement strategies were simultaneously captured by a non-invasive inertial motion capture system. Sixty-four children aged 7-10 (boys: n = 37, girls: n = 27) participated. The results of correlational and principal component analysis (PCA) on measures of variability of upper extremities indicated significant relationships between nearly all measures (r = 0.31-0.69, p < 0.05). Similarly, a PCA on variability from joint movements in the lower extremities indicated relatively high intercorrelations (r = 0.31-0.71, p < 0.01). A pattern of four different variability profiles was indicated in the interrelationship between the upper and lower body. These findings emphasize the value of using innovative measurements and whole-body motion capture to disentangle individual differences in children's movement variability in product- and process-oriented assessments of gross motor competence.

Distinct clusters of movement entropy in children's exploration of a virtual reality balance beam.

Although assessing motor competence is vital to advancing current understandings of motor development and its significance in various fields, no consensus exists on how the construct should be operationalised and measured. Existing approaches to assessing motor competence in children typically involve applying qualitative and/or quantitative scoring procedures in which children's performance is evaluated according to certain levels of assessment-specific task performance dependent upon predefined sets of instructions and procedures. Building upon ecological dynamics as a framework, different levels of motor competence can be identified in children's attempts to coordinate their degrees of freedom while trying to complete the interactive task and environmental constraints. Given the dynamic, nonlinear features of that coordinating process, assessments need to consider the inherit structure of inter- and intra-individual variability in patterns of movement. Against that background, we investigated 7-10-year-old children's (n = 58) whole-body joint kinematics as they freely explored a balance beam in a virtual reality playground. Specifically, we used exploratory cluster analysis to examine the discriminatory capability of utilising joint-specific sample entropy as a window into individual differences in movement coordination that emerged from children's exploration of the constraints embedded in the virtual task. Among the results, three clusters of children with distinct profiles of movement variability emerged, all of which showed heterogeneous levels of repeatability in joint movements in combination with the level of spatiotemporal exploration on the balance beam that could not be explained by between-cluster differences in age and gender distributions. Those findings suggest that entropy from whole-body movements can be used to cluster children into distinct groups with different profiles regarding the structure of movement variability, which can inform new understandings and the development of gross motor competence assessments for children.

Constituent Year Effects and Performance in Alpine Skiing Junior World Championships.

This study examines constituent year effect (CYE) and race performance among junior alpine skiers in the World Championships. In various junior age cohorts competing together, variation in skiing performance can be expected not only due to practice load and experience but also due to inter-individual differences in physical and psychological maturation. Within a one-year cohort, this effect has been referred to as the birth month effect or the relative age effect (RAE). In cohorts with multiple age bands, the effect is termed the constituent year effect (CYE). The CYE works in principle as the RAE but can function as a magnifying lens of the development within a larger multi-year cohort. The results of the current study indicate that CYEs are present among junior alpine skier performance in the junior World Championships. The magnitude of the constituent year effect is greater in speed events (i.e., downhill and super-G) than in technical events (i.e., slalom and giant slalom), and greater among male skiers compared to female skiers. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research on relative age effects more generally and within the sport context specifically.

Virtual Risk Management-Exploring Effects of Childhood Risk Experiences through Innovative Methods (ViRMa) for Primary School Children in Norway: Study Protocol for the ViRMa Project.

BACKGROUND: Research indicates that risky play benefits children's risk assessment and risk management skills and offers several positive health effects such as resilience, social skills, physical activity, well-being, and involvement. There are also indications that the lack of risky play and autonomy increases the likelihood of anxiety. Despite its well-documented importance, and the willingness of children to engage in risky play, this type of play is increasingly restricted. Assessing long-term effects of risky play has been problematic because of ethical issues with conducting studies designed to allow or encourage children to take physical risks with the potential of injury. OBJECTIVE: The Virtual Risk Management project aims to examine children's development of risk management skills through risky play. To accomplish this, the project aims to use and validate newly developed and ethically appropriate data collection tools such as virtual reality, eye tracking, and motion capturing, and to provide insight into how children assess and handle risk situations and how children's past risky play experiences are associated with their risk management. METHODS: We will recruit 500 children aged 7-10 years and their parents from primary schools in Norway. Children's risk management will be measured through data concerning their risk assessment, risk willingness, and risk handling when completing a number of tasks in 3 categories of virtual reality scenarios: street crossing, river crossing, and playing on playground equipment. The children will move around physically in a large space while conducting the tasks and wear 17 motion-capturing sensors that will measure their movements to analyze motor skills. We will also collect data on children's perceived motor competence and their sensation-seeking personality. To obtain data on children's risk experiences, parents will complete questionnaires on their parental style and risk tolerance, as well as information about the child's practical risk experience. RESULTS: Four schools have been recruited to participate in data collection. The recruitment of children and parents for this study started in December 2022, and as of April 2023, a total of 433 parents have consented for their children to participate. CONCLUSIONS: The Virtual Risk Management project will increase our understanding of how children's characteristics, upbringing, and previous experiences influence their learning and ability to handle challenges. Through development and use of cutting-edge technology and previously developed measures to describe aspects of the children's past experiences, this project addresses crucial topics related to children's health and development. Such knowledge may guide pedagogical questions and the development of educational, injury prevention, and other health-related interventions, and reveal essential areas for focus in future studies. It may also impact how risk is addressed in crucial societal institutions such as the family, early childhood education, and schools. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/45857.

Development and Content Validation of the Swimming Competence Assessment Scale (SCAS): A Modified Delphi Study.

The purpose of this study was to design and develop the Swimming Competence Assessment Scale (SCAS) to measure children's aquatic skills as they align with the physical education curriculum for Norwegian primary schools. We conducted a three-round modified Delphi study involving 22 national experts in the aquatic profession. Experts reached consensus on scale items within an observation form and coding sheet based on a swimming proficiency test for measuring six aquatic skills: water entry, frontstroke swimming, surface dive, float/rest, backstroke swimming and water exit. Independent experts obtained high agreement (scale level: 88%, item level: 80-93%) on the relevance, representativeness, and clarity of the scale. Current results suggest that the SCAS is a valid instrument for researchers and practitioners to observe and record children's aquatic proficiency for the purpose of screening and developing aquatic education.

Aspects of Developmental Pathways toward World-Class Parasport.

The developmental pathways of athletes with a physical disability into world-class parasport are much less researched and understood compared to able-bodied athletes' participation histories. The purpose of this study was to investigate the developmental pathways of para-athletes toward elite performance. Data from eight athletes with physical disabilities ranked among the top performers in Paralympics, World Championships, and/or European Championships were gathered. Thematic analysis of retrospective semi-structured interviews led to the identification of four themes. The findings showed the importance of early childhood sport-related encounters in a family environment followed by sampling of various organized and coach-led sports throughout the childhood period. The youth sport period was highly heterogenous, albeit with important transitions towards elite-level practice environments, competition, coaching, equipment adaptability and the first intentions of becoming an elite-level athlete. Throughout, significant contributions are attributed towards parents, friends, coaches, athletes, and others, towards fostering a sustained motivational climate focused on improvement and further progress. These findings could provide useful information to tailor developmental models towards elite-level performance in parasport.

Effects of Free Play and Partly Structured Playground Activity on Motor Competence in Preschool Children: A Pragmatic Comparison Trial.

Both the indoor and the outdoor environments and their organization exert pronounced influence upon physical activity behavior and motor development of preschool children. The aim of this study was to explore whether partly structured activity or free play in a specific playground had different impacts on motor competence development in 4-6-year-old preschoolers. The study had a pretest-post-test design, with two intervention groups and one control. Sixty-two children were included in a partly structured activity group and forty-three children in a free-play group. Both groups participated in playground activities consisting of 10 sessions (once a week), each lasting 1 h, in a specific playground setting. For the partly structured activity group, activities in each session consisted of a combination of both structured and free activity while the free-play group were engaged in unstructured play only. The control group did not attend the playground activities (N = 36). To assess levels of motor skills, each child completed pre- and post-tests using the Movement Assessment Battery for children (MABC-2), the Test of Motor Competence (TMC) and two playground-specific tests. A 3 (study group) and X 2 (gender) ANCOVAs were conducted on post-test scores on each of the test items from TMC, MABC-II and playground tests, with pre-test scores as covariates. Post hoc pairwise multiple comparisons were conducted with the alpha Bonferroni corrected, and the partial eta-squared (η2p) was applied as a measure of effect size. The results indicate no significant differences in motor competence measured by the TMC or the MABC-2 between groups. On the contrary, a significant improvement in performance in the playground-specific tests was observed in the partly structured activity group compared to the free-play and control groups.

Variations in the relative age effect with age and sex, and over time-Elite-level data from international soccer world cups.

The relative age effect (RAE) is a statistical bias observed across sport contexts and consists of a systematic skewness in birth date distribution within an annual-age cohort. In soccer, January 1st is the common cut-off date when categorizing players in competitions according to their chronological age, which potentially disadvantages those within the cohort who were born later in the year. Thus, relatively older soccer players in their cohort can be favored in talent identification, selection, and development. The aim of the current study was to investigate the variations in RAE in male and female international youth world-cup tournaments (U17 and U20) in the period from 1997-2019 and in international senior world-cup-tournaments from 2006-2019. A total of 20,401 soccer players participating in 47 different tournaments were analyzed. The birthdate distributions were categorized into four quartiles (January-March, Q1; April-June, Q2; July-September, Q3; October-December, Q4) and compared to a uniform distribution using Chi-square analysis with Cramer's V (Vc) as a measure of effect size. Based on the existing data concerning RAE in elite junior and senior soccer, it was hypothesized that: (I) the RAE is present in youth soccer world cup tournaments but is stronger in male players than in female players; (II) the younger the soccer players, the stronger the RAE; and (III) the RAE in world cup soccer tournaments has strengthened over time. All these hypotheses were supported by the data; novel findings included that the effect has now entered women's soccer, and in men's soccer it persists into senior world cup tournaments. Thus, a strong RAE bias occurs in selection among elite soccer players competing in international world cup tournaments.

The association between academic achievement in physical education and timing of biological maturity in adolescents.

Individual differences in tempo and timing of biological maturity, especially in adolescents, has been argued as a potential underlying cause of relative age effects observed in Physical education (PE). Indeed, differences in maturation could influence pupils`achievement in PE where motor behavior and physical activity are central tenets. However, the timing of biological maturity has not previously been investigated in the context of academic achievement in PE. Therefore, the current study`s aim was to investigate the association between timing of biological maturity and relative age on adolescents`academic achievement in PE. The data material consists of two samples from lower secondary schools (13-16 years old). Sample 1 (45 boys and 31 girls) was used to compare differences in anthropometrics and indicators of biological maturity between pupils with different grades (i.e., 3/4, 5, 6), while in sample 2 (114 boys and 127 girls) differences in mean grade were compared between birth quartiles. Pupils`final grade in PE were collected for both samples as a proxy for academic achievement. A one-way analysis of variance indicated a moderate-to-large association between timing of biological maturity, through age at peak height velocity, and academic achievement in PE, where later maturing pupils received a higher grade compared to earlier maturing pupils. Results from a factorial analysis of variance indicated an interaction effect between gender and birth quartile on academic achievement in PE. Post hoc analysis revealed that relatively younger boys received significantly lower grades as opposed to their relatively older peers. This effect was not present for girls. Collectively, these results indicate that developmental differences are associated with academic achievement in PE. Hence, PE teachers should be aware of these individual constraints in their teaching and assessment practice to accommodate fair and equal opportunities for achievement in the subject.

Interacting Constraints and Relative Age Effect in Elite Cross-Country Skiers and Freeskiers.

Different characteristics of sports disciplines potentially lead to skewness in birth month distribution (relative age effect, RAE). These characteristics can be considered from a constraint-based approach with interacting environmental, task, and individual constraints as a theoretical framework with which to examine variations in RAE. The main aim of the present study was to examine the theoretical predictions of the constraint-based framework by investigating the birth month distribution in cross-country skiers and freeskiers at elite junior and senior levels. The sample was comprised of top ranked Norwegian U15-U19/20 cross-country skiers and junior-level freeskiers. Birth months of top ranked international senior-level skiers in cross-country and freeskiing were also collected. Results indicated an over-representation of skiers born in the first half versus the second half of the year at all junior ages in cross-country skiing. There was no significant difference in the distribution of birth months in freeskiing or in senior cross-country skiers or freeskiers. Based upon the interacting constraint framework, the skewness towards more early-born athletes in junior cross-country skiing could be due to strict age-grouped and results-oriented developmental programs beginning at an early age (environmental constraints) as well as high-demand for physical capabilities (task constraints) that favour more physically mature athletes (individual constraints). For freeskiing, the interacting environmental (less structured and more individualistic-oriented development), task (high technical/motor skill demands), and individual (no advantage of advanced physical maturation) constraints potentially operate in the opposite direction compared to cross-country skiing.

Bilateral Interference in Motor Performance in Homologous vs. Non-homologous Proximal and Distal Effectors.

Performance of bimanual motor actions requires coordinated and integrated bilateral communication, but in some bimanual tasks, neural interactions and crosstalk might cause bilateral interference. The level of interference probably depends on the proportions of bilateral interneurons connecting homologous areas of the motor cortex in the two hemispheres. The neuromuscular system for proximal muscles has a higher number of bilateral interneurons connecting homologous areas of the motor cortex compared to distal muscles. Based on the differences in neurophysiological organization for proximal vs. distal effectors in the upper extremities, the purpose of the present experiment was to evaluate how the level of bilateral interference depends on whether the bilateral interference task is performed with homologous or non-homologous effectors as the primary task. Fourteen participants first performed a unilateral primary motor task with the dominant arm with (1) proximal and (2) distal controlled joysticks. Performance in the unilateral condition with the dominant arm was compared to the same effector's performance when two different bilateral interference tasks were performed simultaneously with the non-dominant arm. The two different bilateral interference tasks were subdivided into (1) homologous and (2) non-homologous effectors. The results showed a significant decrease in performance for both proximal and distal controlled joysticks, and this effect was independent of whether the bilateral interference tasks were introduced with homologous or non-homologous effectors. The overall performance decrease as a result of bilateral interference was larger for proximal compared to distal controlled joysticks. Furthermore, a proximal bilateral interference caused a larger performance decrement independent of whether the primary motor task was controlled by a proximal or distal joystick. A novel finding was that the distal joystick performance equally interfered with either homologous (distal bilateral interference) or non-homologous (proximal bilateral interference) interference tasks performed simultaneously. The results indicate that the proximal-distal distinction is an important organismic constraint on motor control and for understanding bilateral communication and interference in general and, in particular, how bilateral interference caused by homologous vs. non-homologous effectors impacts motor performance for proximal and distal effectors. The results seem to map neuroanatomical and neurophysiological differences for these effectors.

Age at Nomination Among Soccer Players Nominated for Major International Individual Awards: A Better Proxy for the Age of Peak Individual Soccer Performance?

Individual soccer performance is notoriously difficult to measure due to the many contributing sub-variables and the variety of contexts within which skills must be utilised. Furthermore, performance differs across rather specialised playing positions. In research, soccer performance is often measured using combinations of, or even single, sub-variables. All too often these variables have not been validated against actual performance. Another approach is the use of proxies. In sports research, the age of athletes when winning championship medals has been used as a proxy for determining their age of peak performance. In soccer, studies have used the average age of players in top European leagues or in the Champions League to determine the age of individual peak performance. Such approaches have methodological shortcomings and may underestimate the peak. We explore the use of a new proxy, the age at nomination for major individual awards, to determine the average age at peak individual soccer performance. A total of 1,981 players nominated for major awards from 1956 to 2019 were included, and a subset of 653 retired players was extracted, thus including players' complete careers. Players' average ages at nomination, at their first nomination, and at their last ever nomination were calculated, and differences across playing positions were calculated together with changes over time in the average age at peak. Based on our proxy, the age of individual peak soccer performance occurs around 27-28 years, varying across playing positions from 26 to 31 years. A player's first peak, on average, seems to coincide with known peaks of physiological variables; their last-ever peak occurs long after physiological performance has started to decline, indicating that the decline can be compensated for by other variables. The peak age is higher than previously reported for soccer; however, it is similar to those in other team ball sports. The average age at peak performance has increased over time, especially in the last decade. Our approach of using proxies for unearthing information about hidden features of otherwise immeasurable complex performance appears to be viable, and such proxies may be used to validate sub-variables that measure complex behaviour.

Association Between Motor Competence, Physical Fitness, and Academic Achievement in Physical Education in 13- to 16-Year-Old School Children.

In physical education (PE), both assessment practices and choice of teaching content indicate that pupil-related factors such as motor competence and physical fitness potentially influence pupils' academic achievement in PE. However, neither of these factors are explicitly expressed as assessment criteria in the Norwegian PE-curriculum. Hence, the aim of the current study was to investigate potential differences in motor competence and physical fitness between pupils with different academic achievements in PE. Forty-five boys and 31 girls (N = 76) from grades 8 to 10 in the lower secondary school participated in this study. In addition to collecting pupils' final grade in PE, as a proxy for academic achievement, they were assessed on the Test of Motor Competence (placing bricks, building bricks, heal-to-toe-walking, and walking/running in slopes) and four task items from the Test of Physical fitness (standing broad jump, pushing medicine ball, running 20 m as fast as possible, and reduced Cooper test). In the main analysis, the total score for motor competence and physical fitness, as well as their respective task items, were compared between pupils with different grades (i.e., 3 or 4, 5, 6). A one-way ANOVA revealed neither significant difference between pupils with different grades in overall motor competence (total score) nor the respective task items for fine motor assessment or the gross motor task heal-to-toe-walking. However, there was a large difference between pupils with different grades in performance of the gross motor task walking/running in slopes, where pupils receiving a grade of 6 and 5 completed the task significantly faster compared to their peers with a grade of 3 or 4. Furthermore, a one-way ANOVA indicated moderate-to-large differences between pupils with different grades in the total score of physical fitness and performance in three of the four respective task items (i.e., standing broad jump, running 20 m as fast as possible, and reduced Cooper test). Pupils with a grade of 6 had a significantly greater total score of physical fitness and jumped longer compared to pupils with a grade of 5 and 3 or 4. Additionally, pupils with a grade of 6 ran significantly faster as opposed to pupils with a grade of 3 or 4. Performance on the reduced Cooper test was significantly different between all groups of grades, with the distance covered being progressively increased from pupils receiving a grade of 3 or 4 to 6, respectively. These results indicate that physical fitness levels and one component of motor competence may influence pupils' academic achievement in PE. Since neither certain levels of gross motor competence nor physical fitness are explicitly stated as assessment criteria in the Norwegian PE curriculum, these findings may indicate a lack of alignment between PE-teachers' assessment practice and the curriculum's intentions. It is argued that PE-teachers should be aware of how these individual constraints may influence pupils' academic achievement in PE so that all pupils are given equal opportunities to meet the described learning outcomes.

More Pronounced Bimanual Interference in Proximal Compared to Distal Effectors of the Upper Extremities.

Bimanual performance depends on effective and modular bilateral communication between the two bodysides. Bilateral neural interactions between the bodysides could cause bimanual interference, and the neuromuscular system for proximal and distal muscles is differently organized, where proximal muscles have more bilateral interneurons at both cortical and spinal level compared to distal muscles. These differences might increase the potential for bimanual interference between proximal arm muscles, because of greater proportions of bilateral interneurons to proximal muscles. The purpose of the present experiment was to evaluate potential differences in bimanual interference between proximal versus distal effectors in the upper extremities. 14 participants first performed a unilateral primary motor task with dominant arm with (1) a proximal and (2) distal controlled joysticks (condition A). Performance in condition A, was compared with the same effector's performance when a bimanual interference task was performed simultaneously with the non-dominant arm (condition B). The results showed a significant bimanual interference for both the proximal and distal controlled joysticks. Most interestingly, the bimanual interference was larger for the proximal joystick compared to the distal controlled joystick. The increase in spatial accuracy error was higher for the proximal controlled joystick, compared with the distal controlled joystick. These results indicate that the proximal-distal distinction is an important organismic constraint on motor control, and especially for bilateral communication. There seem to be an undesired bilateral interference for both proximal and distal muscles. The interference is higher in the case of proximal effectors compared distal effectors, and the results seem to map the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological differences for these effectors.

The Effects of Physical Education on Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Appropriate levels of motor competence are an integrated part of individuals' health-related fitness, and physical education is proposed as an important context for developing a broad range of motor skills. The aim of the current study was to apply meta-analyses to assess the effectiveness of curriculum-based physical education on the development of the overall motor competence of children and adolescents. Studies were located by searching seven databases and included according to predefined criteria. Random effects models using the standardized effect size (Hedges' g) were used to aggregate results, including an examination of heterogeneity and inconsistency. The meta-analysis included 20 studies, and a total of 38 effect sizes were calculated. A statistically significant improvement in motor competence following curriculum-based physical education compared to active control groups was observed in children and adolescents (g = -0.69, 95% CI -0.91 to -0.46, n = 23). Participants' ages, total time for physical education intervention, and type of motor competence assessment did not appear to be statistically significant moderators of effect size. Physical education with various curricula can, therefore, increase overall motor competence in children and adolescents.

Variations in the constituent year effect in Junior World Championships in alpine skiing: A window into relative development effects?

While research on the effects of 'birth month' is usually referred to as relative age effects, the study of the effects of 'birth year' is described as the constituent year effect (CYE). In the present study we examined the impact of the CYE on participation in the Junior World Championship in alpine skiing. Based on previous research, we expected to find increasing numbers of participants the older the age-group, and that the CYE would be stronger in the speed events compared to the technical ones. The sample in the present study consisted of 1188 male skiers and 859 female skiers within the age range of 17 to 21 years at the time of competition. The results show that the number of male participants increased with increasing age, which can be described as a CYE. For female skiers, a CYE was found, but it dissipated two years earlier than for male skiers. The CYE varied with event and was more pronounced the higher the speed of the event. The findings thus suggest that a constituent year effect exists among skiers participating in the FIS Junior World Ski Championship in the alpine skiing championships, and that the effect varies with gender and event, rather unrelated to age. Thus, it seems that the effect may not be a relative age effect, but instead a relative development effect.

A Golden Age for Motor Skill Learning? Learning of an Unfamiliar Motor Task in 10-Year-Olds, Young Adults, and Adults, When Starting From Similar Baselines.

It is often argued within sports circles that the age span of around 6-12 years is a golden age for motor skill learning, and this period is often described as sensitive, or even critical, for learning such skills. Consequently, skill development programmes target this age span for teaching technical and coordinative skills. In the scientific literature, however, the term golden age is scarcely seen, and few studies have even attempted to test this hypothesis. When comparing motor learning between children and adults, studies have typically found little difference or differences favoring adults. Studies that have reported precocious learning within the golden age seem not to have controlled all relevant variables. Typically, the different age groups have not started from similar baselines and have tested tasks that have not been scaled according to physical differences between individuals belonging to the various groups. The present study tested 10-year-olds, 18-year-olds, and 40-year-olds on dart throwing with their non-dominant hands. They each completed 200 throws over 2 days, with 1 day in between. All participants performed at similar levels at the pre-test, and the task was scaled according to each participant's individual size. No difference was found between the groups after practice in terms of change in absolute error, or with respect to the slopes of their learning curves. The 10-year-olds' learning curves were more variable compared with the other groups. Thus, the present study found no evidence that the 10-year-olds belonged to a golden age for motor learning, and we would argue that previous findings of differences might well be artefacts due to lack of control of relevant variables.