Microautoradiographic quantitation of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA levels in human prostate specimens containing normal and neoplastic epithelium.

Human prostate specimens commonly contain a spectrum of epithelial changes, including normal acinar and ductal structures, hyperplasia, intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia), and carcinoma. Since vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression is dependent on cell type and tissue microenvironment, meaningful quantitation of the levels of this mRNA in pathological specimens requires analysis at the microscopic level. Phosphorimage analysis of the binding of radiolabeled cRNA probes to tissue sections allows quantitation of mRNA levels, but the resolution is limited. Alternatively, emulsion autoradiography allows visualization of mRNA levels at cellular resolution, but quantitation is difficult. We have developed a method of quantitating steady state mRNA levels in tissue sections at the microscopic level, using autoradiography and quantitative image analysis. In this study, we describe the method and apply it to quantitation of VEGF mRNA in human prostate specimens. The VEGF mRNA level was low in nonepithelial stromal tissue (0.8 dpm/mm2), high in normal and benign hyperplastic epithelium (17-18 dpm/mm2), and significantly decreased in intraepithelial neoplasia (6.4 dpm/mm2) and in microacinar carcinoma that had invaded the stroma (3.5 dpm/mm2). Immunohistochemical staining detected VEGF protein in epithelial and stromal cells, with highest levels on the luminal surface of normal epithelium and in stromal cells, and lower levels in benign hyperplasia, intraepithelial neoplasia, and carcinoma. No correlation between VEGF expression in epithelium and nearby vessel density was observed. The results indicate a decrease in the steady state level of VEGF mRNA when prostate epithelial cells become transformed, escape the confines of glandular structure and invade the stroma, and suggest that the progression of prostatic carcinoma through the stages examined in this study is not associated with increased VEGF expression, in contrast to the elevated VEGF expression associated with progression of several other tumor types.

Quantitation of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA levels in human breast tumors and metastatic lymph nodes.

In situ hybridization analysis provides a means to qualitatively study the heterogeneity of primary tumors and metastases based on the types of genes transcribed. In this study, we have tested some parameters for quantitative analysis of in situ hybridizations with paraffin-embedded human breast tumors and measured mRNA levels for the angiogenic protein, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF mRNAs were highly tumor specific, with the highest levels near necrotic regions within the tissues (0.1 to 2.7 dpm/mm2). Normal cells within the tissue sections did not have detectable levels of VEGF mRNA. For comparison, tumor levels of c-myc (4 to 46 dpm/mm2) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase mRNAs (48 to 214 dpm/mm2) were measured. The mRNAs for both of these genes were more broadly expressed across the tissue sections. The hybridization pattern for VEGF mRNAs was consistent with hypoxia-induced VEGF mRNA steady-state levels and supports the hypothesis that oxidative stress regulates VEGF expression in breast tumors.

Decreased vascular endothelial growth factor expression associated with tumor regression induced by (E)-2'-deoxy-2'-(fluoromethylene)cytidine (MDL 101,731).

The effect of the antitumor drug MDL 101,731 [(E)-2'-deoxy-2'-(fluoromethylene)cytidine] on tumor growth and on steady-state vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA levels in MDA-MB-231, PC-3, MCF-7, and HT-29 human tumor xenografts grown in nude mice was examined, using quantitative in situ hybridization. MDL 101,731 caused regression of MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 tumor xenografts, but only inhibition of growth (without regression) of MCF-7 xenografts. The drug caused inhibition of growth of HT-29 xenografts at low doses, and regression at high doses. When treatment with MDL 101,731 led to tumor regression, VEGF mRNA levels were decreased. When treatment led only to inhibition of growth, there was no significant change in VEGF mRNA. Further examination of the tumor xenografts revealed that elevated VEGF mRNA was associated with hypoxic zones surrounding areas of necrosis in the tumors, and that the drop in VEGF mRNA observed in tumors from mice treated with MDL 101,731 correlated with a loss of zones of necrosis. In contrast, treatment with cisplatin led to either an increase (PC-3) or no change (MDA-MB-231) in VEGF mRNA levels, and no loss of necrotic zones. Quantitative analysis of changes in VEGF mRNA levels was supported by immunohistochemical analysis of VEGF protein in the same tumor specimens. In vitro, MDL 101,731 was a potent inhibitor of VEGF secretion in cells exposed to hypoxia, whereas there was no effect of cisplatin on VEGF secretion by three of the four cell lines tested. These findings suggest that inhibition of VEGF expression by MDL 101,731 may distinguish this compound from other classes of cytotoxic agents, such as cisplatin.

A ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor, MDL 101,731, induces apoptosis and elevates TRPM-2 mRNA levels in human prostate tumor xenografts.

MDL 101,731, (E)2'-fluoromethylene-2'-deoxycytidine, is an irreversible inhibitor of ribonucleotide diphosphate reductase and causes regression of human tumors in nude mouse models. Messenger RNA levels for testosterone-repressed prostatic message-2 (TRPM-2), a transcript that increases in human tumor xenografts undergoing programmed cell death, were analyzed by in situ hybridization. Xenografts derived from a human prostate tumor cell line (PC-3) regressed following treatment with MDL 101,731 and the relative levels of TRPM-2 mRNA increased up to threefold in drug-treated animals. Apoptosis in the tumor xenografts was further indicated by in situ labeling of DNA strand breaks by incorporation of biotinylated-dUTP with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase. In vitro, PC-3 cells incubated with MDL 101,731 showed evidence of apoptosis based on flow cytometry and DNA laddering. These data support the hypothesis that MDL 101,731 stimulates programmed cell death in regressing PC-3 xenografts.

Hemobartonella-like parasites in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis).

Red blood cell parasites were identified electron microscopically in five anemic adult female cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), two of which died during anemic episodes. Organisms typically were 0.3-0.5-micron round, oval, or reniform bodies on the surface or within vacuoles of erythrocytes. Based on their size, location in the erythrocyte, and internal ultrastructural features, organisms were classified as Hemobartonella-like. The relationship between the organisms and the anemias in these monkeys was unclear. This report adds rickettsial erythrocyte infections to the list of latent infections that can complicate research studies with cynomolgus monkeys.

Anti-mitochondrial effects of bisethyl polyamines in mammalian cells.

The effects of three bisethyl polyamine analogs on mitochondrial structure and function were examined in human HeLa and L1210 murine leukemia cells. N, N' Bis-[3(ethylamino)-propyl]1-7- heptane diamine (BEPH), and its octane (BEPO), and butane (BESPM) derivative, were shown by electron microscopy and/or Rhodamine 123 uptake studies to alter the structural integrity of mitochondria when both cell lines were treated at the approximate IC50 dose of each drug. At this dose, BEPH had no marked effects on levels of the naturally occurring polyamines, putrescine, spermidine or spermine, in either cell line whereas BEPO and BESPM treatment did result in pool depletion. Southern blot analysis demonstrated a time and dose-dependent loss of mitochondrial DNA from BEPH-treated L1210 cultures suggesting that loss of mitochondrial integrity extended to the DNA level. Treatment of L1210 cells with all three analogs revealed marked reductions in the activity of two mitochondrial enzymes citrate synthase and cytochrome C oxidase. HeLa cells treated with all three analogs exhibited markedly reduced levels of ATP, complete loss of cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and near total depletion of uridine triphosphate (CTP) and near total depletion of uridine triphosphate (UTP). There was also a loss of colony forming ability in HeLa cells which could be nearly completely reversed by the addition of either uridine or cytidine suggesting that NTP reduction may be the primary antiproliferative determinant in these cells. Growth inhibition by BEPH in L1210 cells was markedly potentiated by the glycolysis inhibitor, 2-deoxyglucose, which had no such effect in otherwise untreated cells. This suggests that BEPH treatment of L1210 cells results in impairment of mitochondrial ATP synthesis and activation of the glycolytic pathway for energy production. 2-deoxyglucose treatment also completely prevented the increase of ATP by BEPH treatment of L1210 cells. It is concluded that all three bisethyl polyamines alter HeLa and L1210 mitochondria both structurally and functionally and that these alterations may play a primary role in the antiproliferative activity of these agents in HeLa cells. In L1210, the different spectra of cellular biochemical changes following bisethyl polyamine treatment suggests that additional mechanisms may be in effect.

Three-month effects of MDL 19,660 on the canine platelet and erythrocyte.

Nine male and nine female Beagle dogs were divided into three groups and administered orally 0, 15, or 30 mg/kg/day of the antidepressant compound MDL 19,660(5-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,4-dihydro-2,4-dimethyl-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-t hione) for 3 months to determine the long-term effects on hemopoietic cells. Compared to a control platelet range of 353,000-452,000/microliters, a thrombocytopenia reached lowest mean levels of 135,000/microliters in the 15 mg/kg/day dogs after 2 weeks and 81,000/microliters in the 30 mg/kg/day dogs after 1 week. Subsequently, platelet numbers progressively increased and by the end of the study averaged 222,000/microliters and 203,000/microliters in dogs administered 15 and 30 mg/kg/day. Ultrastructural study of the platelet increase in the 30 mg/kg/day dogs revealed more smaller discoid platelets but no change in percentage platelets with vacuolar degeneration. Histologically, megakaryocyte hyperplasia was present in the sternal marrows and spleens of treated dogs. These observations suggest that increased thrombopoiesis rather than reduced destruction was involved in this partial recovery of platelet numbers during continuous treatment. Concurrently, cyclic formation of reticulocytes and Heinz bodies occurred in dogs given 30 mg/kg/day of MDL 19,660. These dogs had slightly lower erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin levels, and hematocrits in association with hemosiderosis (spleen, liver), extramedullary hematopoiesis (spleen), and bone marrow hypercellularity. These findings indicate that both destructive and regenerative processes followed MDL 19,660-induced Heinz body formation.

Chronic toxicity studies with vigabatrin, a GABA-transaminase inhibitor.

The GABA-transaminase inhibitor, vigabatrin, has been shown to have a rather low degree of acute toxicity in several animal species. Oral administration of the drug at 1,000 mg/kg/day for 2-4 weeks caused decreased food consumption and weight loss with resultant prostration and death in both rats and dogs. Dosages of 200 mg/kg/day were tolerated for a year without clinical signs in dogs, although rats suffered reduced weight gains and convulsions after 3-4 months when given the drug in the diet. The convulsions continued to occur frequently throughout the one-yr study, but abated 3-4 months after cessation of treatment. The only consistent histopathologic evidence of toxicity in rats and dogs has been the finding of intramyelinic edema (microvacuolation) in the brain, most notably in certain areas of white matter (cerebellum, reticular formation and optic tract in rats and columns of fornix and optic tract in dogs). No lesions were found in the spinal cord or peripheral nervous system. It took several weeks for the microvacuolation to develop, even at high dosages, but it did not continue to progress thereafter, even though a slight effect was noted at dosages as low as 30-50 mg/kg/day after one yr of treatment. The intramyelinic edemia disappeared within a few weeks after treatment was withdrawn. No residual effects were observed in dogs, whereas rats exhibited swollen axons and microscopic mineralized bodies in the cerebellum. Monkeys exhibited no adverse clinical effects except for occasional loose stools at 300 mg/kg/day. After 16 months of oral treatment at 300 mg/kg/day any suggestion of intramyelinic edema was considered to be equivocal, and there was no evidence of any effect in the 50 or 100 mg/kg/day monkeys after 6 yr of treatment. Higher doses caused chronic diarrhea, thus limiting the dosage in this species. Vigabatrin was shown to be well absorbed in rat, dog and man, whereas dose-limited absorption occurred in the monkey. Metabolism is practically nil in all 4 species and the primary elimination pathway is by glomerular filtration. Because vigabatrin is an irreversible inhibitor of GABA-transaminase and the enzyme has a slow turnover rate, plasma levels of the drug are not indicative of its pharmacologic activity. For this reason cerebrospinal fluid levels of GABA and vigabatrin were evaluated, with considerable species differences being noted. The significance of these differences in relation to the differences in toxic response is discussed.

Short-term studies of MDL 19,660-induced canine thrombocytopenia.

After 2 days of dosing, platelet counts progressively declined in dogs treated orally with 30 mg/kg/day of the antidepressant compound MDL 19,660 for 8 days. Accompanying the decrease in platelet counts was an increase in both large and vacuolated degenerating platelets. Upon cessation of dosing, the platelet counts returned to levels equal to or exceeding predosing levels within 4-7 days. Co-administration with aspirin, a known antiaggregating agent, had no protective effect on the drug-induced thrombocytopenia. In vitro testing of normal canine platelets in the presence of MDL 19,660 further revealed that spontaneous aggregation did not occur and that ADP-induced aggregation was inhibited. Drug-related platelet loss was also not prevented by the co-administration of prednisone, a steroid with immunosuppressive effects and inhibitory properties against reticuloendothelial cell phagocytosis of platelets. The results of the present investigation indicate that MDL 19,660 may produce in the dog a reversible thrombocytopenia in the form of vacuolar degeneration and subsequent destruction of the platelet by means other than aggregation or steroid-responsive mechanisms.

Degeneration of the rat and canine adrenal cortex caused by alpha- (1,4-dioxido-3-methylquinoxalin-2-yl) -N-methylnitrone (DMNM).

The antibacterial drug alpha- (1,4-dioxido-3-methylquinoxalin-2-yl)-N-methylnitrone (DMNM) given at a dose of 22.5 mg/kg/bid to 4 dogs for 14 days caused diminished adrenal cortical reserves as determined by decreased plasma corticol (3 dogs) and lower aldosterone levels (4 dogs) following the intravenous infusion of ACTH. A dose of 100 mg/kg/day of DMNM administered to rats for 31 or 35 days resulted in significant decreases in blood glucose. Histologically, the adrenal glands of both species treated with DMNM for a maximum period of 21 days (dogs) and 35 days (rats) had widespread granular and vacuolar degeneration of the cortex. The degeneration, as demonstrated in treated rats, began in the zona reticularis and inner regions of the zona fasciculata and eventually involved the entire cortex including the zona glomerulosa. As a result of treatment, significant ultrastructural alterations within cells of the rat and canine adrenal cortex consisted of degeneration of the mitochondria and an increase in the numbers and lipolysis of lipid droplets. The ultrastructure of the zona reticularis and fasciculata was most severely affected.

Degeneration of the rat and canine adrenal cortex caused by alpha-(1,4-dioxido-3-methylquinoxalin-2-yl)-N-methylnitrone (DMNM).

The antibacterial drug alpha-(1,4-dioxido-3-methylquinoxalin-2-yl) N-methylnitrone (DMNM) given at a dose of 22.5 mg/kg bid to four dogs for 14 days caused diminished adrenal cortical reserves as determined by decreased plasma cortisol (three dogs) and lower aldosterone levels (four dogs) following the intravenous infusion of ACTH. A dose of 100 mg/kg/day of DMNM administered to rats for 31 or 35 days resulted in significant decreases in blood glucose. Histologically, the adrenal glands of both species treated with DMNM for a maximum period of 21 days (dogs) and 35 days (rats) had widespread granular and vacuolar degeneration of the cortex. This degeneration in treated rats began in the zona reticularis and inner regions of the zona fasciculata and eventually involved the entire cortex including the zona glomerulosa. As a result of treatment, significant ultrastructural alterations within cells of the rat and canine adrenal cortex consisted of degeneration of the mitochondria and an increase in the numbers and lipolysis of lipid droplets. The ultrastructure of the zona reticularis and fasciculata was most severely affected.

Intestinal changes caused by DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), an inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase.

Subacute (2 week) oral or intravenous administration of DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), an irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), caused diarrhea and frequent emesis as early as 4 to 5 days in dogs (dose greater than or equal to 200 mg/kg/day). Diarrhea also occurred in monkeys after 1 week of treatment with an intravenous dose of 1000 mg/kg/day. Especially evident in the treated dogs with diarrhea were fluid loss, hemoconcentration, and decreased serum sodium and chloride which were findings totally reversible about 2 weeks after cessation of dosing. As a result of treatment with the highest intravenous dosage (1000 mg/kg/day), villous atrophy of the mucosa was observed by light and scanning electron microscopy in the canine small intestine. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that the most significant alterations of the canine intestinal tract involved the microvilli of epithelial cells which became shorter and were frequently less numerous or absent along focal areas of the plasma membrane. Intestinal mucosal levels of putrescine, especially in the duodenum and jejunum, were decreased as demonstrated in the monkeys following intravenous treatment with 100, 300, or 1000 mg/kg/day of DFMO. The results of this investigation are consistent with the hypothesis that the inhibition of ODC activity and subsequent altered polyamine metabolism may lead to delayed maturation of the intestinal epithelial cells and the impaired development of their microvilli, causing fluid loss due to reduced absorptive surface area.