World Health Organization Guidelines for treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2-3 and screen-and-treat strategies to prevent cervical cancer

"BACKGROUND: It is estimated that 1%-2% of women develop cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2-3 (CIN 2-3) annually worldwide. The prevalence among women living with HIV is higher, at 10%. If left untreated, CIN 2-3 can progress to cervical cancer. WHO has previously published guidelines for strategies to screen and treat precancerous cervical lesions and for treatment of histologically confirmed CIN 2-3. METHODS: Guidelines were developed using the WHO Handbook for Guideline Development and the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. A multidisciplinary guideline panel was created. Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials and observational studies were conducted. Evidence tables and Evidence to Recommendations Tables were prepared and presented to the panel. RESULTS: There are nine recommendations for screen-and-treat strategies to prevent cervical cancer, including the HPV test, cytology, and visual inspection with acetic acid. There are seven for treatment of CIN with cryotherapy, loop electrosurgical excision procedure, and cold knife conization. CONCLUSION: Recommendations have been produced on the basis of the best available evidence. However, high-quality evidence was not available. Such evidence is needed, in particular for screen-and-treat strategies that are relevant to low- and middle-income countries."

Interferon-induced gene expression in cervical mucosa during human papillomavirus infection.

The aim of this study is to monitor type I interferon (IFN) activation in the cervical mucosa of Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-infected and uninfected women attending a routine gynaecologic clinic. The expression of three IFN-induced genes (MxA coding for human Mixovirus resistance protein A, ISG15 Interferon Stimulated Gene coding for a 15 kDa ubiquitin-like protein and UBP43 coding for the ISG15 isopeptidase) was determined as the mRNA copy number in cervical cells, normalized to the mRNA ones of the beta-glucuronidase gene. Type-specific HPV-DNA load was concurrently determined in the HPV-positive samples. Out of 127 samples tested, 54 were sufficient for both DNA and RNA extraction. The type-specific HPV-DNA copy numbers in the 34 HPV-positive samples varied widely. No significant association was found between copy numbers of MxA, ISG15, UBP43 and HPV status or viral load. However, despite a marked inter-individual variability, ISG15 expression was significantly higher when low-risk HPV infections were compared with HPV-negative samples, while high-risk HPV infections had very low ISG15 levels. The lack of ISG15 activation in high-risk HPV-infected cervical cells could be due to the lack of p53-mediated induction or to HPV-directed specific inhibition of type I IFN pathways. This study approach might be of value in clarifying the role of type I IFN activation in determining the clearance or persistence of HPV infections.

[Endoscopic treatment of endobronchial metastases from adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix]. / Traitement endoscopique de métastases endobronchiques d'un adénocarcinome du col utérin.

INTRODUCTION: Endobronchial metastases are, by definition, bronchoscopically visible non-pulmonary tumours with lesions histologically identical to previously demonstrated primary tumours. They are very rarely due to uterine cervical cancer. CASE REPORT: We present the extraordinary case of a woman with endobronchial metastases from an adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix. An interventional bronchoscopy was performed combining, in one session, a mechanical resection, a HF electrocautery and insertion of a stent in the left main stem bronchus. Pathological analysis of this tumour confirmed the diagnosis and found papilloma virus infection. Chemotherapy and confocal radiotherapy was given leading to complete tumour regression and therefore subsequent removal of the stent. Three years after treatment the airways remain normal and the patient free of symptoms. CONCLUSION: Endobronchial metastases are a manifestation of advanced stage disease. Endoscopic treatment by interventional bronchoscopy with symptomatic intent may improve the quality of life and possibly the survival of these patients.

[Prevalence of risk factors: obesity and lipid profile]. / Prevalencia de factores de riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular: obesidad y perfil lipídico.

INTRODUCTION: Cardiovascular diseases are associated with risks factors such as obesity and dyslipaemia, which if present during infancy could continue throughout adult life. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the prevalence of overweight and study lipid profiles. To relate body mass index (BMI) with the studied parameters. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Descriptive and observational study of 1,043 children and adolescents, stratified into three age groups. Taking into account their BMI, they were classified as within normal weight, overweight and obese. Total cholesterol (T-chol), HDL-cholesterol (HDL-chol) and triglycerides (TG) were determined and LDL-chol and non HDL-chol were calculated. RESULTS: BMI: Among the total population, the percentage overweight was 13.9 % and obesity was 5.4 %, with a higher prevalence between 10 and 14 years and also between 5 and 9 years. BMI means were correlated with age in females and males, being higher for females at all ages. Lipid profile (classified according National Cholesterol Education Program): values of cholesterol in potential risk situations were found in 30 % of the population, 16 % for triglycerides, 28 % for LDL-cholesterol and 17 % for non-HDL cholesterol, the risk values being 3 %, 2 %, 4 % and 3 % respectively. Significant differences were observed in lipid values in the total population, overweight and obesity. CONCLUSION: A high prevalence of overweight was observed, as well as a correlation between body mass index and dyslipaemia. This emphasises the need for prevention of overweight and dyslipaemias from an early age.

Prevalencia de factores de riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular: obesidad y perfil lipídico / Prevalence of risk factors: obesity and lipid profile

Introducción: Las enfermedades cardiovasculares se asocian a factores de riesgo como la obesidad y la dislipemia que, instalados en la infancia, tienden a mantenerse en la adultez. Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia de exceso de peso y estudiar el perfil lipídico. Relacionar el índice de masa corporal con las variables en estudio. Material y métodos: Estudio descriptivo observacional de 1.043 niños y adolescentes, estratificados en tres grupos etarios. Según el índice de masa corporal se clasificaron en normopeso, sobrepeso y obesos. Se determinó el colesterol total, el colesterol de las lipoproteínas de alta densidad (c-HDL) y los triglicéridos. Se calculó el colesterol de las lipoproteínas de baja densidad (c-LDL) y el colesterol no-HDL (c-no-HDL). Resultados: Índice de masa corporal: en la población total el porcentaje de sobrepeso fue del 13,9 % y de obesidad del 5,4 %. Las mayores prevalencias fueron entre 10 y 14 años (16,9 %) y entre 5 y 9 años (9,9 %), respectivamente. Los índices promedio se correlacionaron con la edad en varones y mujeres. Perfil lipídico (categorización según el National Cholesterol Education Program): se hallaron valores en situación de riesgo potencial en el 30 % de la población total para colesterol, el 16 % para triglicéridos, el 28 % para c-LDL y el 17 % para colesterol no-HDL. Los valores de riesgo fueron del 3, 2, 4 y 3 %, respectivamente. Se observaron diferencias significativas en los valores de lípidos alterados entre la población total y aquella con sobrepeso y obesidad. Conclusión: Se observa alta prevalencia de exceso de peso y correlación entre el índice de masa corporal y dislipemias, con mayores alteraciones lipídicas en la obesidad. Esto enfatiza la necesidad de la prevención del sobrepeso y las dislipemias desde edades tempranas (AU)

Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are associated with risks factors such as obesity and dyslipaemia, which if present during infancy could continue throughout adult life. Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of overweight and study lipid profiles. To relate body mass index (BMI) with the studied parameters. Materials and methods: Descriptive and observational study of 1,043 children and adolescents, stratified into three age groups. Taking into account their BMI, they were classified as within normal weight, overweight and obese. Total cholesterol (T-chol), HDL-cholesterol (HDL-chol) and triglycerides (TG) were determined and LDL-chol and non HDL-chol were calculated. Results: BMI: Among the total population, the percentage overweight was 13.9 % and obesity was 5.4 %, with a higher prevalence between 10 and 14 years and also between 5 and 9 years. BMI means were correlated with age in females and males, being higher for females at all ages. Lipid profile (classified according National Cholesterol Education Program): values of cholesterol in potential risk situations were found in 30 % of the population, 16 % for triglycerides, 28 % for LDL-cholesterol and 17 % for non-HDL cholesterol, the risk values being 3 %, 2 %, 4 % and 3 % respectively. Significant differences were observed in lipid values in the total population, overweight and obesity. Conclusion: A high prevalence of overweight was observed, as well as a correlation between body mass index and dyslipaemia. This emphasises the need for prevention of overweight and dyslipaemias from an early age (AU)

Vascular endothelium as a target for endogenous ouabain: studies on the effect of ouabain on human endothelial cells.

It has been suggested that an endogenous inhibitor of the sodium pump, identified as ouabain, contributes to the regulation of blood pressure and the pathogenesis of certain forms of hypertension. Vascular endothelial cells, whose functional integrity is crucial for the maintenance of blood flow and the antithrombotic activity, could be a target for endogenous ouabain. We studied the effect of ouabain on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and found that nanomolar concentrations of the glycoside have an antiapoptotic activity that is dependent on the activation of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI-3K) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). At the same concentrations we found that ouabain affects the endocytosis of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) through the activation of signaling proteins such as Src kinase. This review sumarizes our findings on the effect of ouabain on HUVEC, the signal transduction pathways involved and the significance of these observations on the pathophysiology of endothelial function.

Delivering cervical cancer prevention services in low-resource settings.

The goals of any cervical cancer prevention program should be threefold: to achieve high coverage of the population at risk, to screen women with an accurate test as part of high-quality services, and to ensure that women with positive test results are properly managed. This article focuses on the experiences of the Alliance for Cervical Cancer Prevention (ACCP) in delivery of screening and treatment services as part of cervical cancer prevention projects in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Research and experience show that cervical cancer can be prevented when strategies and services are well planned and well managed and when attention is paid to program monitoring and evaluation. Coordination of program components, reduction of the number of visits, improvement of service quality, and flexibility in how services are delivered are all essential features of an effective service.

Advocating for cervical cancer prevention.

Cervical cancer is a significant health problem among women in developing countries. Contributing to the cervical cancer health burden in many countries is a lack of understanding and political will to address the problem. Broad-based advocacy efforts that draw on research and program findings from developing-country settings are key to gaining program and policy support, as are cost-effectiveness analyses based on these findings. The Alliance for Cervical Cancer Prevention (ACCP) has undertaken advocacy efforts at the international, regional, national, and local levels to raise awareness and understanding of the problem (and workable solutions), galvanize funders and governments to take action, and engage local stakeholders in ensuring program success. ACCP experience demonstrates the role that evidence-based advocacy efforts play in the ultimate success of cervical cancer prevention programs, particularly when new screening and treatment approaches-and, ultimately, radically new approaches such as a human papillomavirus vaccine-are available.

Norbormide: a calcium entry blocker with selective vasoconstrictor activity in rat peripheral arteries.

Norbormide is a unique vasoactive substance endowed with species- and tissue-specific, endothelium independent, vasoconstrictor activity that is restricted to the peripheral arteries of rat. In rat aorta and in all tested arteries of other species norbormide exhibits vasorelaxant property presumably due to the blockade of calcium channels. A calcium entry blocker effect of norbormide has also been described in isolated, perfused guinea pig hearts. In these preparations norbormide produced coronary vasodilator, as well as negative inotropic and dromotropic effects. In single ventricular myocytes of guinea pigs norbormide reduces L-type calcium current. The mechanism underlying the selective vasoconstrictor effect of norbormide is unknown. In rat caudal artery, a vessel contracted by norbormide, the drug activates phospholipase C (PLC) signal cascade which is the biochemical pathway involved in the contractile effect triggered by most receptor-activating vasoactive agents. Therefore, norbormide-induced contraction of rat peripheral vessels is likely to be due to the activation of a PLC-coupled receptor abundantly or selectively expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells. The identification of this putative receptor could facilitate the development of tissue-selective pharmacological agents.

Avaliaçäo das medidas de biossegurança no controle de infecçäo cruzada durante tratamento periodontal básico / An evaluation of biossecurity measures on cross-contamination control during cause-related periodontal therapy

Medidas de biossegurança säo decisivas no controle de infecçäo cruzada, causada pela disseminaçäo de bactérias no consultório odontológico. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar a eficácia da desinfecçäo, das barreiras de proteçäo utilizadas em locais críticos e analisar o alcance dos aerossóis, produzidos durante terapia periodontal básica. Dois pacientes foram submetidos à terapia peridontal básica e materais foram coletados nas superfícies críticas analisadas. Com este estudo, foi demonstrado que a utilizaçäo de barreiras e uma descontaminaçäo criteriosa säo suficientes para o controle de infecçäo cruzada

Effects of canrenone on aorta and right ventricle of the rat.

Canrenone is a major active metabolite of spironolactone and, in addition to the antimineralocorticoid effect, shares with the parent compound the action as a partial agonist with respect to ouabain on the Na+-K+ ATPase. We have investigated whether canrenone, through its action on Na+-K+ ATPase, reverses rat aorta contractions induced by ouabain and has vasorelaxant properties unrelated to its interaction with ouabain. Contractile responses of endothelium-deprived aorta to 1 mM ouabain, 0.1 microM phenylephrine, 10 microM serotonin, and 60 mM K+ were relaxed by canrenone (50-250 microM), with maximum inhibitions of 85.3%, 55.3%, 56.7%, and 64.2%, respectively. Canrenone shifted to the right the concentration-response curve for Ca2+ in depolarized aorta and did not affect the response to 10 mM caffeine. In rat right ventricular strips driven at 0.1 Hz, canrenone exerted negative inotropic effect. The relaxation of ouabain-induced contraction may be due, at least in part, to an interaction between canrenone and ouabain on the Na+-K+ ATPase. Inhibition of calcium entry through calcium channels either in aorta or ventricles is the most parsimonious hypothesis of mechanism underlying the effect of canrenone on contractile responses of rat aorta to agonists and high K+ and the negative inotropic effect on ventricular strips.

Signaling mechanisms for the selective vasoconstrictor effect of norbormide on the rat small arteries.

Norbormide (NRB) is a selective vasoconstrictor agent of the rat small vessels. The mechanisms underlying the selective vasoconstrictor effect of NRB are unknown. To investigate whether phospholipase C (PLC) signaling pathway plays a role in NRB-induced vasoconstriction, we performed experiments in NRB-contracted tissues, namely, rat caudal arteries (RCA) and smooth muscle cells derived from rat mesenteric arteries (MVSMCs). An NRB-insensitive vessel, namely rat aorta (RA), served as a control tissue. In RCA and RA we measured either isometric tension or formation of inositol phosphates (IPs), the latter taken as an index of PLC activation. In MVSMCs, we measured intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt). In the presence of external Ca2+, NRB (2-50 microM) stimulated IPs formation in RCA but not in RA, and increased [Ca2+]cyt in MVSMCs. In the absence of external Ca2+, NRB (50 microM) increased IPs formation in RCA but was unable to increase [Ca2+]cyt in MVSMCs. In RCA, in the presence of external Ca2+, NRB-induced contraction was inhibited by calphostin C (0.2-1 microM), an inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC), and by SK&F 96365 (30 microM), an inhibitor of the store-operated calcium channels, but was poorly affected by verapamil, an L-type calcium channel blocker. However, verapamil was much more effective when external Ca2+ was substituted by Sr2+. These results suggest that NRB elicits its tissue and species-selective vasoconstrictor effect by stimulating PLC-PKC pathway and increasing Ca2+ influx through both verapamil-sensitive and -insensitive calcium channels. Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum seems not involved in NRB vasoconstriction.

Callipeltin A, a cyclic depsipeptide inhibitor of the cardiac sodium-calcium exchanger and positive inotropic agent.

Callipeltin A, a cyclic depsipeptide from the New Caledonian Lithistida sponge Callipelta sp., is a macrocyclic lactone containing four amino acids in the L configuration, Ala, Leu, Thr (2 residues); one (Arg) in the D configuration; two N-methyl amino acids, N-MeAla and N-MeGln; a methoxy tyrosine, a 3, 4-dimethyl-l-glutamine; and a 4-amino-7-guanidino-2,3 dihydroxypentanoic acid (AGDHE), formally derived from L-Arg. In cardiac sarcolemmal vesicles Callipeltin A induces a powerful (IC(50) = 0.85 microM) and selective inhibition of the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger. In electrically driven guinea-pig atria, at concentrations ranging between 0.7 and 2.5 microM, Callipeltin A induces a positive inotropic effect, which at the highest concentrations is accompanied by a rise in resting tension. It is suggested that the positive inotropic effect is linked to the inhibition of the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger and that Callipeltin A may be an useful tool to study the role of the cardiac Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger in physiological and pathological conditions.

Sequence analysis of bacterial DNA in the colon and stomach of the Tyrolean Iceman.

The male human body found in an Alpine glacier on September 19, 1991 ("Tyrolean Iceman") has, for the first time in history, given scientists a chance to perform detailed anatomical, histological, and molecular investigations on the organs of a person from the Neolithic Age (5350-5100 B.P.). In the present study, tissue samples aseptically taken from the stomach and the colon of the mummy were utilized for DNA extraction, and the DNA was PCR-amplified, using primer pairs designed to bind to fragments of the 16s ribosomal RNA gene (16s rDNA) of a broad range of bacteria. The PCR products were cloned in plasmid vectors, and the recombinant clones (amplicons) were sequenced. The sequence data were finally used for scanning data libraries containing the corresponding sequences of present-day bacteria, to infer the putative ecophysiology of the ancient ones. The same procedure was repeated on some fragments of grass from the clothing found near the corpse. These fragments were taken as a control of the microbiological situation of the glacier. The results show that the flora of the Iceman's stomach is entirely composed of Burkholderia pickettii, an organism commonly found in aquatic habitats. The colon, on the other hand, contains several members of the fecal flora of humans, such as Clostridium perfringens, C. ghonii, C. sordellii, Eubacterium tenue, and Bacteroides sp. The Iceman's colon, however, was found to contain, rather unexpectedly, also some members of the genus Vibrio. The results are discussed in light of what is known about the preservation of microbial DNA at the Iceman's site and of previous parasitological studies performed on the Iceman himself and on human coprolites.

Status report. Canadian strategy for cancer control.

The Canadian Strategy for Cancer Control is a stakeholder-driven initiative, led by a partnership between the Canadian Cancer Society, National Cancer Institute of Canada, Canadian Association of Provincial Cancer Agencies and Health Canada. The planning process began in January 1999 and currently involves more than 130 health professionals and community representatives who are volunteering their time, experience and expertise. A crucial aspect of the strategy's successful implementation is early participation of the provincial/territorial ministries of health in the planning process. Working groups are addressing 11 areas of the cancer continuum: prevention, screening, diagnosis, treatment, supportive care/rehabilitation, palliative care, pediatric cancer, research, human resource planning, surveillance and informatics/technology. Two stakeholder conferences will engage all cancer stakeholders in helping develop recommendations and establishing priorities for cancer control in Canada.

Effect of long-term ouabain treatment on contractile responses of rat aortae.

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were infused with 50 microg/kg/day of ouabain for 4 weeks to address the question whether prolonged exposure to the drug affects blood pressure, the in vitro contractile responses to agonists and high K+ of their aortae, and the influence of endothelium on these responses. Systolic blood pressure was not affected by ouabain treatment. The responsiveness of endothelium-intact aortae from ouabain-treated rats to endothelin-1 increased, that to phenylephrine decreased, and that to high K+ was unchanged, as compared with control. The responses of endothelium-free aortae to endothelin-1, phenylephrine, and high K+ were lower in ouabain-treated than in control rats. The removal of endothelium increased the response to phenylephrine and decreased that to high K+ in either control or ouabain-treated rat aortae, whereas it did not affect the response to endothelin-1 in control rat aortae and decreased it in ouabain-treated rat aortae. The response to caffeine was unaffected by either ouabain treatment or endothelium removal. Thus rat ouabain long-term treatment induces opposing effects on the responsiveness of their intact aortae to an alpha-adrenergic agonist and endothelin-1. If these effects observed in the ex vivo experiments occur also in vivo on rat microvasculature, they could balance out and contribute to the lack of effect on systolic blood pressure of prolonged ouabain treatment.

Analysis of bacterial DNA in skin and muscle of the Tyrolean iceman offers new insight into the mummification process.

About 80 sequences (16s ribosomal RNA gene) of bacterial DNA in samples of skin and muscle taken directly from the Tyrolean iceman (3350-3100 years B.C.) or recovered during the 1992 archaeological expedition at the Alpine site were analyzed to obtain clues to the natural mummification process that allowed the corpse of the Neolithic shepherd/hunter to be preserved for more than 5,000 years. The investigation was made more complex by the fact that the surface of the mummy had been swabbed with phenol soon after the discovery (September 19, 1991). Our results show that no trace of microbial DNA is left on the actual surface of the body, while the untreated skin still bears the remains of large numbers of bacteria belonging to the genera Sphingomonas, Afipia, Curtobacterium, Microbacterium, Agromyces, and others. Compared to the untreated skin, the iceman's muscle is also very rich in bacterial DNA. However, this DNA comes, with few exceptions, from the species Clostridium algidicarnis. The sharp difference in the bacterial DNA composition of skin and muscle suggests that the remains of the original cadaveric microflora of the latter have not disappeared during the iceman's taphonomic history. On the other hand, the massive presence of C. algidicarnis, a cold-adapted sporigenous, the DNA of which was previously (Ubaldi et al. [1998] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 107:285-295) found in the soft tissue of a naturally desiccated Andean mummy, indicates that the hypothesis that the iceman's corpse underwent rapid dehydration by the effect of a warm wind (föhn) is no longer plausible. The results best fit with the hypothesis (Bereuter et al. [1997] Chem. Eur. J. 7:1032-1038) that the body was first covered by snow and ice, and then underwent thawing and, finally, desiccation.

Alpha1-adrenoceptor-mediated formation of glycerophosphoinositol 4-phosphate in rat heart: possible role in the positive inotropic response.

In the present study, we investigated whether phospholipase A2 (PLA2)/lysophospholipase activity producing glycerophosphoinositols from phosphoinositides was operating in rat heart and could be stimulated by alpha1-adrenergic agonists. PLA2/lysophospholipase activity was found in homogenates from rat right ventricles. The stimulation of PLA2/lysophospholipase activity by noradrenaline (NA) was prevented either by the alpha1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin or arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone, a selective inhibitor of the 85-110 kDa, sn-2-arachidonyl-specific cytosolic PLA2. The selective alpha1-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine induced a concentration- and time-dependent increase in glycerophosphoinositol (GroPIns) and glycerophosphoinositol 4-phosphate (GroPIns4P) in rat right ventricle slices prelabelled with D-myo-[3H]inositol. In electrically driven strips of rat right ventricles, prelabelled with D-myo-[3H]inositol, the positive inotropic effect induced by 20 microM NA in the presence of propranolol was accompanied by the formation of GroPIns and GroPIns4P. The concentration of the formed GroPIns4P (1.33+/-0.12 microM, N = 6) was similar to that previously reported to inhibit the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in cardiac sarcolemmal vesicles (Luciani S, Antolini M, Bova S, Cargnelli G, Cusinato F, Debetto P, Trevisi L and Varotto R, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 206: 674-680, 1995). These findings show that the stimulation of alpha1-adrenoceptors in rat heart is followed by an increase in the formation of GroPIns4P, which may contribute to the positive inotropic effect of alpha1-adrenergic agonists by inhibition of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger.

Sequence analysis of bacterial DNA in the colon of an Andean mummy.

We have isolated DNA from 14 tissue samples from the internal organs of an Andean human mummy (10th-11th century A.D.) and have checked the persistence of the original human and bacterial templates using the following main approaches: 1) amino acid racemization test; 2) quantification of mitochondrial DNA copy number; 3) survey of bacterial DNA in the different organs; 4) sequence analysis of bacterial amplicons of different lengths. The results demonstrate that both the original human DNA and the DNA of the bacteria of the mummy gut are preserved. In particular, sequence analysis of two (respectively 100 and 196 bp in length) libraries of bacterial 16s ribosomal RNA gene amplicons from the mummy colon shows that while the shortest amplicons give only modest and biased indications about the bacterial taxa, the longer amplicons allow the identification several species of the genus Clostridium which are typical of the human colon. This work represents a first example of a methodological approach which is applicable, in principle, to many other natural and artificial mummies and might open the way to the study of the structure of the human microbial ecosystem from prehistory to present.