Antibody-mediated antigen loss switches augmented immunity to antibody-mediated immunosuppression.

Antibodies against fetal red blood cell (RBC) antigens can cause hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). Reductions in HDFN due to anti-RhD antibodies have been achieved through use of Rh immune globulin (RhIg), a polyclonal antibody preparation that causes antibody-mediated immunosuppression (AMIS), thereby preventing maternal immune responses against fetal RBCs. Despite the success of RhIg, it is only effective against 1 alloantigen. The lack of similar interventions that mitigate immune responses toward other RBC alloantigens reflects an incomplete understanding of AMIS mechanisms. AMIS has been previously attributed to rapid antibody-mediated RBC removal, resulting in B-cell ignorance of the RBC alloantigen. However, our data demonstrate that antibody-mediated RBC removal can enhance de novo alloimmunization. In contrast, inclusion of antibodies that possess the ability to rapidly remove the target antigen in the absence of detectable RBC clearance can convert an augmented antibody response to AMIS. These results suggest that the ability of antibodies to remove target antigens from the RBC surface can trigger AMIS in situations in which enhanced immunity may otherwise occur. In doing so, these results hold promise in identifying key antibody characteristics that can drive AMIS, thereby facilitating the design of AMIS approaches toward other RBC antigens to eliminate all forms of HDFN.

Prior immunization against an intracellular antigen enhances subsequent red blood cell alloimmunization in mice.

Antibodies against red blood cell (RBC) alloantigens can increase morbidity and mortality among transfusion recipients. However, alloimmunization rates can vary dramatically, as some patients never generate alloantibodies after transfusion, whereas others not only become alloimmunized but may also be prone to generating additional alloantibodies after subsequent transfusion. Previous studies suggested that CD4 T-cell responses that drive alloantibody formation recognize the same alloantigen engaged by B cells. However, because RBCs express numerous antigens, both internally and externally, it is possible that CD4 T-cell responses directed against intracellular antigens may facilitate subsequent alloimmunization against a surface RBC antigen. Here, we show that B cells can acquire intracellular antigens from RBCs. Using a mouse model of donor RBCs expressing 2 distinct alloantigens, we demonstrate that immune priming to an intracellular antigen, which would not be detected by any currently used RBC compatibility assays, can directly influence alloantibody formation after exposure to a subsequent distinct surface RBC alloantigen. These findings suggest a previously underappreciated mechanism whereby transfusion recipient responders may exhibit an increased rate of alloimmunization because of prior immune priming toward intracellular antigens.

Storage differentially impacts alloimmunization to distinct red cell antigens following transfusion in mice.

INTRODUCTION: The impact of blood storage on red blood cell (RBC) alloimmunization remains controversial, with some studies suggesting enhancement of RBC-induced alloantibody production and others failing to observe any impact of storage on alloantibody formation. Since evaluation of storage on RBC alloimmunization in patients has examined antibody formation against a broad range of alloantigens, it remains possible that different clinical outcomes reflect a variable impact of storage on alloimmunization to specific antigens. METHODS: RBCs expressing two distinct model antigens, HEL-OVA-Duffy (HOD) and KEL, separately or together (HOD × KEL), were stored for 0, 8, or 14 days, followed by detection of antigen levels prior to transfusion. Transfused donor RBC survival was assessed within 24 h of transfusion, while IgM and IgG antibody production were assessed 5 and 14 days after transfusion. RESULTS: Stored HOD or KEL RBCs retained similar HEL or KEL antigen levels, respectively, as fresh RBCs, but did exhibit enhanced RBC clearance with increased storage age. Storage enhanced IgG antibody formation against HOD, while the oppositive outcome occurred following transfusion of stored KEL RBCs. The distinct impact of storage on HOD or KEL alloimmunization did not appear to reflect intrinsic differences between HOD or KEL RBCs, as transfusion of stored HOD × KEL RBCs resulted in increased IgG anti-HOD antibody development and reduced IgG anti-KEL antibody formation. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate a dichotomous impact of storage on immunization to distinct RBC antigens, offering a possible explanation for inconsistent clinical experience and the need for additional studies on the relationship between RBC storage and alloimmunization.

Clodronate inhibits alloimmunization against distinct red blood cell alloantigens in mice.

BACKGROUND: Alloimmunization can be a significant barrier to red blood cell (RBC) transfusion. While alloantigen matching protocols hold promise in reducing alloantibody formation, transfusion-dependent patients can still experience RBC alloimmunization and associated complications even when matching protocols are employed. As a result, complementary strategies capable of actively preventing alloantibody formation following alloantigen exposure are warranted. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We examined whether pharmacological removal of macrophages using clodronate may provide an additional strategy to actively inhibit RBC alloimmunization using two preclinical models of RBC alloimmunization. To accomplish this, mice were treated with clodronate, followed by transfusion of RBCs expressing the HOD (HEL, OVA, and Duffy) or KEL antigens. On days 5 and 14 post transfusion, anti-HOD or anti-KEL IgM and IgG antibodies were evaluated. RESULTS: Low dose clodronate effectively eliminated key marginal zone macrophage populations from the marginal sinus. Prior treatment with clodronate, but not empty liposomes, also significantly inhibited IgM and IgG anti-HOD alloantibody formation following transfusion of HOD RBCs. Similar exposure to clodronate inhibited IgM and IgG antibody formation following KEL RBC transfusion. CONCLUSIONS: Clodronate can inhibit anti-HOD and anti-KEL antibody formation following RBC transfusion in preclinical models. These results suggest that clodronate may provide an alternative approach to actively inhibit or prevent the development of alloantibodies following RBC transfusion, although future studies will certainly be needed to fully explore this possibility.

Complement Plays a Critical Role in Inflammation-Induced Immunoprophylaxis Failure in Mice.

Complement impacts innate and adaptive immunity. Using a model in which the human KEL glycoprotein is expressed on murine red blood cells (RBCs), we have shown that polyclonal immunoprophylaxis (KELIg) prevents alloimmunization to transfused RBCs when a recipient is in their baseline state of heath but with immunoprophylaxis failure occurring in the presence of a viral-like stimulus. As complement can be detected on antibody coated KEL RBCs following transfusion, we hypothesized that recipient complement synergizes with viral-like inflammation to reduce immunoprophylaxis efficacy. Indeed, we found recipient C3 and C1q were critical to immunoprophylaxis failure in the setting of a viral-like stimulus, with no anti-KEL IgG alloantibodies generated in C3-/- or C1q-/- mice following KELIg treatment and KEL RBC transfusion. Differences in RBC uptake were noted in mice lacking C3, with lower consumption by splenic and peripheral blood inflammatory monocytes. Finally, no alloantibodies were detected in the setting of a viral-like stimulus following KELIg treatment and KEL RBC transfusion in mice lacking complement receptors (CR1/2-/-), narrowing key cells for immunoprophylaxis failure to those expressing these complement receptors. In-vitro studies showed complement fixed opsonized RBCs were significantly less likely to bind to B-cells from CR1/2-/- than wild type mice, potentially implicating lowered B-cell activation threshold in the presence of complement as being responsible for these findings. We thus propose a two-hit model for inflammation-induced immunoprophylaxis failure, where the first "hit" is recipient inflammation and the second "hit" is complement production/sensing. These results may have translational relevance to antigen-antibody interactions in humans.

Infused total nucleated cell dose is a better predictor of transplant outcomes than CD34+ cell number in reduced-intensity mobilized peripheral blood allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation.

Mobilized peripheral blood is the most common graft source for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation following reduced-intensity conditioning. In assessing the effect of donor cell dose and graft composition on major transplant outcomes in the reduced-intensity setting, prior studies focused primarily on CD34(+)cell dose and reported conflicting results, especially in relation to survival end-points. While the impact of total nucleated cell dose has been less frequently evaluated, available studies suggest higher total nucleated cell dose is associated with improved survival outcomes in the reduced-intensity setting. In order to further explore the relationship between CD34(+)cell dose and total nucleated cell dose on reduced-intensity transplant outcomes, we analyzed the effect of donor graft dose and composition on outcomes of 705 patients with hematologic malignancies who underwent reduced-intensity peripheral blood stem cell transplantation at the Dana Farber Cancer Institute from 2000 to 2010. By multivariable analysis we found that higher total nucleated cell dose (top quartile; ≥10.8 × 10(10)cells) was associated with improved overall survival [HR 0.69 (0.54-0.88),P=0.0028] and progression-free survival [HR 0.68 (0.54-0.85),P=0.0006]. Higher total nucleated cell dose was independently associated with decreased relapse [HR 0.66 (0.51-0.85),P=0.0012] and increased incidence of chronic graft-versus-host disease [HR 1.4 (1.12-1.77),P=0.0032]. In contrast, higher doses of CD34(+)cells (top quartile; ≥10.9 × 10(6)/kg) had no significant effect on graft-versus-host disease or survival outcomes. These data suggest total nucleated cell dose is a more relevant prognostic variable for reduced-intensity transplant outcomes than the more commonly studied CD34(+)cell dose.

Genetic and epigenetic fine mapping of causal autoimmune disease variants.

Genome-wide association studies have identified loci underlying human diseases, but the causal nucleotide changes and mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here we developed a fine-mapping algorithm to identify candidate causal variants for 21 autoimmune diseases from genotyping data. We integrated these predictions with transcription and cis-regulatory element annotations, derived by mapping RNA and chromatin in primary immune cells, including resting and stimulated CD4(+) T-cell subsets, regulatory T cells, CD8(+) T cells, B cells, and monocytes. We find that ∼90% of causal variants are non-coding, with ∼60% mapping to immune-cell enhancers, many of which gain histone acetylation and transcribe enhancer-associated RNA upon immune stimulation. Causal variants tend to occur near binding sites for master regulators of immune differentiation and stimulus-dependent gene activation, but only 10-20% directly alter recognizable transcription factor binding motifs. Rather, most non-coding risk variants, including those that alter gene expression, affect non-canonical sequence determinants not well-explained by current gene regulatory models.

Alternative splicing of MBD2 supports self-renewal in human pluripotent stem cells.

Alternative RNA splicing (AS) regulates proteome diversity, including isoform-specific expression of several pluripotency genes. Here, we integrated global gene expression and proteomic analyses and identified a molecular signature suggesting a central role for AS in maintaining human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) self-renewal. We demonstrate that the splicing factor SFRS2 is an OCT4 target gene required for pluripotency. SFRS2 regulates AS of the methyl-CpG binding protein MBD2, whose isoforms play opposing roles in maintenance of and reprogramming to pluripotency. Although both MDB2a and MBD2c are enriched at the OCT4 and NANOG promoters, MBD2a preferentially interacts with repressive NuRD chromatin remodeling factors and promotes hPSC differentiation, whereas overexpression of MBD2c enhances reprogramming of fibroblasts to pluripotency. The miR-301 and miR-302 families provide additional regulation by targeting SFRS2 and MDB2a. These data suggest that OCT4, SFRS2, and MBD2 participate in a positive feedback loop, regulating proteome diversity in support of hPSC self-renewal and reprogramming.

Genome-scale proteome quantification by DEEP SEQ mass spectrometry.

Advances in chemistry and massively parallel detection underlie DNA-sequencing platforms that are poised for application in personalized medicine. In stark contrast, systematic generation of protein-level data lags well behind genomics in virtually every aspect: depth of coverage, throughput, ease of sample preparation and experimental time. Here, to bridge this gap, we develop an approach based on simple detergent lysis and single-enzyme digest, extreme, orthogonal separation of peptides and true nanoflow liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry that provides high peak capacity and ionization efficiency. This automated, deep efficient peptide sequencing and quantification mass spectrometry platform provides genome-scale proteome coverage equivalent to RNA-seq ribosomal profiling and accurate quantification for multiplexed isotope labels. In a model of the embryonic to epiblast transition in murine stem cells, we unambiguously quantify 11,352 gene products that span 70% of Swiss-Prot and capture protein regulation across the full detectable range of high-throughput gene expression and protein translation.

C/EBPα and DEK coordinately regulate myeloid differentiation.

The transcription factor C/EBPα is a critical mediator of myeloid differentiation and is often functionally impaired in acute myeloid leukemia. Recent studies have suggested that oncogenic FLT3 activity disrupts wild-type C/EBPα function via phosphorylation on serine 21 (S21). Despite the apparent role of pS21 as a negative regulator of C/EBPα transcription activity, the mechanism by which phosphorylation tips the balance between transcriptionally competent and inhibited forms remains unresolved. In the present study, we used immuno-affinity purification combined with quantitative mass spectrometry to delineate the proteins associated with C/EBPα on chromatin. We identified DEK, a protein with genetic links to leukemia, as a member of the C/EBPα complexes, and demonstrate that this association is disrupted by S21 phosphorylation. We confirmed that DEK is recruited specifically to chromatin with C/EBPα to enhance GCSFR3 promoter activation. In addition, we demonstrated that genetic depletion of DEK reduces the ability of C/EBPα to drive the expression of granulocytic target genes in vitro and disrupts G-CSF-mediated granulocytic differentiation of fresh human BM-derived CD34(+) cells. Our data suggest that C/EBPα and DEK coordinately activate myeloid gene expression and that S21 phosphorylation on wild-type C/EBPα mediates protein interactions that regulate the differentiation capacity of hematopoietic progenitors.

Stem-cell-like qualities of immune memory; CD4+ T cells join the party.

Similar to hematopoietic stem cells, memory lymphocytes self-renew, while their clonally expanded effector progeny differentiate to fight infection and tumors. Recently, Muranski et al. (2011) report in Immunity that a subset of Th17 effector cells function as memory cells and retain stem cell properties.

Understanding the first steps in embryonic stem cell exit from the pluripotent state.

BACKGROUND: We are interested in understanding how a given cell type, in response to external cues from its environment, makes the decision to differentiate. In the case of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs), the key external factor that maintains their undifferentiated state is the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). LIF removal causes mESCs to exit their pluripotent state and differentiate into more restricted precursors. Although LIF is known to activate multiple different phosphorylation cascades, the mechanisms by which its removal leads to mESC differentiation are not well understood. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: In order to identify the molecular events that occur upon LIF removal, we developed a set of novel experimental approaches that allowed identification and quantification of global phosphorylation changes that occur when mESCs are deprived of LIF. These included growth of mESCs on permeable membranes and development of a robust and sensitive phospho-proteomics platform to quantify early signaling events. RESULTS: In addition to the well-characterized tyrosine 705 phosphorylation of STAT3, LIF removal results in the rapid phosphorylation of multiple other proteins known to regulate the mESC self-renewal on both tyrosine, serine, and threonine residues. We hypothesize that these unique posttranslational modifications help drive the exit of mESCs from the pluripotent state. CONCLUSIONS: Our data set the stage for future studies investigating the functional role of these phosphorylation events in mESCs. These studies were greatly facilitated by the National Blood Foundation, whose support in the crucial initiation phase of these studies was invaluable.

Online nanoflow multidimensional fractionation for high efficiency phosphopeptide analysis.

Despite intense, continued interest in global analyses of signaling cascades through mass spectrometry-based studies, the large-scale, systematic production of phosphoproteomics data has been hampered in-part by inefficient fractionation strategies subsequent to phosphopeptide enrichment. Here we explore two novel multidimensional fractionation strategies for analysis of phosphopeptides. In the first technique we utilize aliphatic ion pairing agents to improve retention of phosphopeptides at high pH in the first dimension of a two-dimensional RP-RP. The second approach is based on the addition of strong anion exchange as the second dimension in a three-dimensional reversed phase (RP)-strong anion exchange (SAX)-RP configuration. Both techniques provide for automated, online data acquisition, with the 3-D platform providing the highest performance both in terms of separation peak capacity and the number of unique phosphopeptide sequences identified per µg of cell lysate consumed. Our integrated RP-SAX-RP platform provides several analytical figures of merit, including: (1) orthogonal separation mechanisms in each dimension; (2) high separation peak capacity (3) efficient retention of singly- and multiply-phosphorylated peptides; (4) compatibility with automated, online LC-MS analysis. We demonstrate the reproducibility of RP-SAX-RP and apply it to the analysis of phosphopeptides derived from multiple biological contexts, including an in vitro model of acute myeloid leukemia in addition to primary polyclonal CD8(+) T-cells activated in vivo through bacterial infection and then purified from a single mouse.

A robust error model for iTRAQ quantification reveals divergent signaling between oncogenic FLT3 mutants in acute myeloid leukemia.

The FLT3 receptor tyrosine kinase plays an important role in normal hematopoietic development and leukemogenesis. Point mutations within the activation loop and in-frame tandem duplications of the juxtamembrane domain represent the most frequent molecular abnormalities observed in acute myeloid leukemia. Interestingly these gain-of-function mutations correlate with different clinical outcomes, suggesting that signals from constitutive FLT3 mutants activate different downstream targets. In principle, mass spectrometry offers a powerful means to quantify protein phosphorylation and identify signaling events associated with constitutively active kinases or other oncogenic events. However, regulation of individual phosphorylation sites presents a challenging case for proteomics studies whereby quantification is based on individual peptides rather than an average across different peptides derived from the same protein. Here we describe a robust experimental framework and associated error model for iTRAQ-based quantification on an Orbitrap mass spectrometer that relates variance of peptide ratios to mass spectral peak height and provides for assignment of p value, q value, and confidence interval to every peptide identification, all based on routine measurements, obviating the need for detailed characterization of individual ion peaks. Moreover, we demonstrate that our model is stable over time and can be applied in a manner directly analogous to ubiquitously used external mass calibration routines. Application of our error model to quantitative proteomics data for FLT3 signaling provides evidence that phosphorylation of tyrosine phosphatase SHP1 abrogates the transformative potential, but not overall kinase activity, of FLT3-D835Y in acute myeloid leukemia.

Improved electrospray ionization efficiency compensates for diminished chromatographic resolution and enables proteomics analysis of tyrosine signaling in embryonic stem cells.

Characterization of signaling pathways in embryonic stem cells is a prerequisite for future application of these cells to treat human disease and other disorders. Identification of tyrosine signaling cascades is of particular interest but is complicated by the relatively low levels of tyrosine phosphorylation in embryonic stem cells. These hurdles correlate with the primary limitations of mass spectrometry-based proteomics; namely, poor detection limit and dynamic range. To overcome these obstacles, we fabricated miniaturized LC-electrospray assemblies that provided approximately 15-fold improvement in LC-MS performance. Significantly, our characterization data demonstrate that electrospray ionization efficiency compensates for diminished chromatographic performance at effluent flow rates below Van Deemter minima. Use of these assemblies facilitated quantitative proteomics-based analysis of tyrosine signaling cascades in embryonic stem cells. Our results suggest that a renewed focus on miniaturized LC coupled to ultralow flow electrospray will provide a viable path for proteomic analysis of primary cells and rare post-translational modifications.

The molecular program induced in T cells undergoing homeostatic proliferation.

Naïve T cells proliferate independently of cognate antigen when introduced into lymphopenic hosts. Lymphopenia-induced proliferation depends on low-affinity MHC/self-peptide complexes and on IL-7. To elucidate the intracellular signals mediating this proliferation, we analyzed changes in gene expression in naive CD8+ T cells at different times after their transfer into a lymphopenic environment. The genes induced in response to lymphopenia were largely an attenuated subset of those turned up by full antigenic stimulation, including genes related to cell cycling, whereas excluding genes specifically associated with effector activity. After the initial phase of proliferation in an empty compartment, the naive T cells adopted a stable pattern of gene expression similar to that of antigen-experienced memory cells. Thus, T cells proliferating in lymphopenic hosts do not exhibit a unique gene-expression profile, instead relying on "traditional" signals for this antigen-independent proliferation; this process ultimately results in differentiation to "authentic" memory cells.