HBV lamivudine resistance among hepatitis B and HIV coinfected patients starting lamivudine, stavudine and nevirapine in Kenya.

Widespread use of lamivudine in antiretroviral therapy may lead to hepatitis B virus resistance in HIV-HBV coinfected patients from endemic settings where tenofovir is not readily available. We evaluated 389 Kenyan HIV-infected adults before and for 18 months after starting highly active antiretroviral therapy with stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine. Twenty-seven (6.9%) were HBsAg positive and anti-HBs negative, 24 were HBeAg negative, and 18 had HBV DNA levels ≤ 10,000 IU/mL. Sustained HBV suppression to <100 IU/mL occurred in 89% of 19 evaluable patients. Resistance occurred in only two subjects, both with high baseline HBV DNA levels. Lamivudine resistance can emerge in the setting of incomplete HBV suppression but was infrequently observed among HIV-HBV coinfected patients with low baseline HBV DNA levels.

Correlation of WHO clinical staging with CD4 counts in adult HIV/AIDS patients at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the degree of correlation between the WHO clinical staging and CD4 T-cell counts in HIV/AIDS adults at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi. SUBJECTS: One hundread and fifty two newly diagnosed HIV patients were recruited prospectively. Patients were first staged using the 2005 WHO clinical staging and then blood drawn for CD4 cell count. RESULTS: The mean age in the study was 35 years, with females comprising 52.6% of the study group. The mean CD4 counts were 455, 420, 203 and 92 for WHO Stage 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The sensitivity of the WHO clinical staging to predict CD4 counts of > 350 cells/microl was 63% with a specificity of 82%. The most common HIV clinical events were bacterial infections (33%), severe weight loss (28%) and tuberculosis (27%). CONCLUSIONS: There was correlation between the WHO clinical staging and expected CD4 T-cell count. However, the sensitivity was low and missed over a third of the patients in need of HAART. Majority of the patients presented in severe disease in need of HAART at the onset of their HIV diagnosis with 107 (70.3%) of the patients with Stage 3 or 4 disease and 114 (75%) of patients with CD4 counts of < 350 cells/microl.

Familial clustering of cancer in two tertiary care hospitals in Nairobi, Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the occurrence of cancers in families of individuals diagnosed cancer. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Outpatient cancer clinics at Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) and Radiotherapy Clinic at Nairobi Hospital. SUBJECTS: Patients with a tissue histological or cytological diagnosis of cancer. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A reported family history of cancer. RESULTS: A total number of 485 cancer patients were recruited, 382, from KNH and 103 from Nairobi Hospital. These index cases had 45 different types of cancer, with the most common being breast and uterine-cervical malignancies. Prevalence of family history of cancer was found to be 18.8% and was highest among 1st degree relatives. Documentary evidence was seen in 48.4% and history of cancer corroborated by medical personnel in an additional 11%. In 18.7% of cases more than one relative was interviewed to confirm the family history of cancer. Educational levels of the index cases correlated with knowledge of family history of cancer, with those of higher educational level having been more informed about their families' medical history. There was a prevalence of familial cancers of 30% at Nairobi Hospital patients and 15.7% at KNH patients. CONCLUSION: We found the prevalence of family history of cancer in our population to be 18.8% and was highest among 1st degree relatives. This has implications for targeted screening and therefore early diagnosis which is beneficial.

Prevalence of dyslipidemia and dysglycaemia in HIV infected patients.

BACKGROUND: Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has dramatically reduced AIDS morbidity and mortality, however long-term metabolic consequences including dysglycaemia and dyslipidemia have raised concern regarding accelerated cardiovascular disease risk. OBJECTIVE: To determine the period prevalence of dyslipidemia and dysglycaemia in HIV-infected patients. DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparative group study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, a tertiary HIV dedicated out-patient facility. SUBJECTS: Consecutive HIV- positive adult patients. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Dyslipidemia: presence of raised total or LDL cholesterol or low HDL cholesterol, or raised triglycerides. Dysglycaemia: presence of impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance, or diabetes mellitus. RESULTS: Between January and April 2006, out of 342 screened patients, 295 were recruited and 58% were females. One hundred and thirty four (45%) were on HAART, 82% of whom were on stavudine, lamivudine and either nevirapine or efavirenz. Overall prevalence of dyslipidemiawas 63.1% and dysglycaemia was 20.7%. High total cholesterol occurred in 39.2% of HAART and 10.0% HAART naive patients (p<0.0001, OR 5.18, CI 3.11-10.86), whereas high LDL cholesterol occurred in 40.8% and in 11.2% respectively (p<0.0001, OR 5.43, CI 2.973-9.917). HDL levels were low in 14.6% and 51.3% among HAART and HAART naive patients, respectively, (p<0.0001, OR 0.16, CI 0.091-0.29) while high triglycerides occurred in 25.6% and 22.5% respectively (p=0.541 OR 1.184 CI 0.688-2.037). Among patients on HAART compared to HAART naive patients, diabetes was found in 1.5% against 1.2% (p=0.85), impaired fasting in 2.2% against 0.6% (p=0.30) and impaired glucose tolerance in 16.4% against 21.1% (p=0.22), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: HIV- infected patients demonstrated a high prevalence of dyslipidemia. HAART use was associated with high levels of total, and LDL cholesterol and high triglyceride levels, an established athrogenic lipid profile. However, HAART was not associated with low HDL cholesterol and had no significant effect on dysglycaemia.

Total lymphocyte count as a surrogate marker for CD4+ t cell count in initiating antiretroviral therapy at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the utility of Total Lymphocyte Count (TLC) as a surrogate marker for CD4 + T cell count in antiretroviral (ARV) treatment initiation in a Kenyan population of HIV seropositive patients at Kenyatta National Hospital. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, HIV treatment and follow-up outpatient facility; Comprehensive Care Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and twenty five HIV Elisa positive, ARV naive patients visiting the Comprehensive Care Centre between January 2006 to March 2006. RESULTS: A significant linear correlation was found between TLC and CD4 cell count for the whole group with a Spearman rank correlation of 0.761 (p < 0.01); and was also independently observed in the four WHO clinical stages. The classification utility of TLC 1200 cells/mm3 cut-off was suboptimal; sensitivity 37% specificity of 99% and the NPV of 56%. The receiver operator characteristics (ROC) curve generated an optimal TLC cut-off of 1900 cells/mm3 cut-off to be of greatest utility with a sensitivity of 81.1%, specificity of 90.3%, PPV of 90.8% and NPV of 80.2%. This implies that a TLC cut-off of 1900 cells/mm3 correctly classify eight out of ten HIV positive patients as having a CD4 < 200 cells/mm3 and only misclassify two such patients. Serial CD4 testing can then be performed on the minority of patients who despite a TLC > or = 1900 cells/mm3 are, on basis of clinical data, suspect of more advanced disease warranting ARV therapy. This would reduce the number of patients tested for and focus the application of CD4 testing and thus reduce attendant cost in care provision in CD4 resource poor settings. CONCLUSION: Our data showed a good positive correlation between TLC and CD4 cell count, however the WHO recommended TLC cuto-ff of 1200/mm3 was found to be of low sensitivity in classifying patients as having a CD4 counts < 200 cells/mm3. This would result in underestimation of advanced stage of disease and to withholding ARVs treatment to persons who need treatment. We recommend a TLC cut-off of 1900 cells/mm3 for our population to classify patients as either above or below the CD4 count cut-off of 200 cells/mm3 as an indicator of when to start antiretroviral therapy.

Analysis of the domain interactions between the protease and helicase of NS3 in dengue and hepatitis C virus.

Flaviviridae non-structural 3 protein (NS3) is a multifunctional enzyme, composed by a protease domain (NS3pro) and an RNA helicase domain (NS3hel). The activities present in NS3 have proved to be critical for viral replication. The replicative cycle of Flaviviridae requires coordinated regulation of all the activities present in the full-length NS3 protein, however, the exact nature of these interactions remains unclear. The present work aimed to determine common structural features between NS3 of dengue and hepatitis C viruses and to characterize residues involved in the regulation of the interdomain motions between NS3pro and NS3hel. Analysis of the root mean square (RMS) variation shows that NS3pro increases the stability of subdomain 1 of the RNA helicase. Moreover, the dynamic behaviour of the carboxy terminus of NS3hel, supports the hypothesis that, upon release of the carboxy-terminus from NS3pro, the residues involved in this interaction are folded back into the last alpha-helix. Using normal mode analysis, we characterized slow collective motions of NS3, and observed that the two lowest-frequency normal modes are enough to describe reorientations of NS3pro relative to NS3hel. These movements induced an increment in the exposure of the active site of NS3pro that can be important during the proteolytic processing of the viral polyprotein. The third low-frequency normal mode was correlated to subdomain reorientations of NS3hel, similar to those proposed during NTP hydrolysis and dsRNA unwinding. Based on these data, we support a dynamic model, in which the domain movements between NS3pro and NS3hel result in the regulation of its activities.

Prevalence of HCV and HIV/HCV co-infection among volunteer blood donors and VCT clients.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of HCV infection and HCV/HIV co-infection among voluntary blood donors at the National Blood Transfusion Centre and clients at the Kenyatta National Hospital HIV-Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) Centre. DESIGN: A prospective cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, a tertiary referral and teaching hospital and the National Blood Transfusion Services Centre, Nairobi. SUBJECTS: Volunteer blood donors and VCT attendants. RESULTS: The prevalence of HCV/HIV co-infection among 6154 blood donors in the NBTSC was very low, at 0.02. The HIV prevalence among the 353 KNH HIV-VCT clients was 9.3%, none of the clients tested positive for HCV. The incidence of risk factors in the persons with HCV and/or HIV infection(s) was low. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of HCV infection among pre-screened volunteer blood donors was low. However the current practice of screening all donated blood for HCV remains indispensable to prevent its transmission to blood recipients.

Prevalence of HCV and HCV/HIV co-infection among in-patients at the Kenyatta National Hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of HCV and HCV/HIV co-infection among medical in-patients at the Kenyatta National Hospital. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, a tertiary referral and teaching hospital, in-patient department SUBJECTS: HIV/AIDS and HIV negative in-patients at KNH medical wards. RESULTS: Among 458 HIV/AIDS medical in-patients, the prevalence of HCV was 3.7% while in the 518 HIV negative patients, it was 4.4%. The prevalence of co-infection with HCV and HIV was 3.7%. The incidence of risk factors in persons with HCV and/or HIV infection(s) was low. CONCLUSION: This study found the prevalence of HCV infection among medical in-patients to be similar in HIV positive and HIV negative group of patients. The co-infection rates were low, as were the risk factors for transmission of these infections.

Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori and endoscopic findings in HIV seropositive patients with upper gastrointestinal tract symptoms at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositive patients frequently experience upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) symptoms that cause considerable morbidity and are due to multiple aetiologies. The role of Helicobacter pylori gastric mucosal infection in HIV related upper GIT morbidity is unclear. No data exist on the prevalence of H. pylori gastric mucosal infection and upper gastrointestinal endoscopic findings in HIV seropositive patients at the Kenyatta National Hospital. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of H. pylori gastric mucosal infection and the pattern of upper gastrointestinal endoscopic findings in HIV seropositive patients. DESIGN: A hospital-based prospective case-control study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, Endoscopy Unit. SUBJECTS: Fifty two HIV seropositive patients with upper GIT symptoms were recruited (as well as 52 HIV seronegative age and gender matched controls). INTERVENTION: Both cases and control subjects underwent upper GIT endoscopy and biopsies were taken according to a standard protocol. H. pylori detection was done by the rapid urease test and histology, and H. pylori gastric mucosal infection was considered to be present in the presence of a positive detection by both tests; biopsies were also taken for tissue diagnosis and CD4+ peripheral lymphocyte counts were determined using flow cytometry. RESULTS: H. pylori prevalence was 73.1% [95% CI 59.9-83.8] in HIV positive subjects and 84.6% [95% CI 72.9-92.6] in HIV negative controls (p=0.230). Prevalence of H. pylori decreased with decreasing peripheral CD4+ lymphocyte counts. Median CD4+ lymphocyte count was 67 cells per cubic millimetre in HIV positive patients. On endoscopy, the most common lesion in HIV positive patients was oesophageal candidiasis (occurring in 51.9%), which was often associated with presence of oral candidiasis and, together with erosions, ulcers and nodules in the oesophagus, occurred exclusively in these patients. A few cases of cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex oesophagitis were seen, as were cases of upper GIT Kaposi's sarcoma, and one gastric lymphoma. CONCLUSIONS: H. pylori prevalence was not significantly different between HIV positive and HIV negative subjects, and decreased in HIV positive subjects with decreasing CD4+ cell counts. Oesophageal candidiasis was the most important endoscopic finding in HIV positive patients and was often associated with oral thrush.

Upper gastrointestinal findings in diabetic outpatients at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of H. pylori and the associated upper gastrointestinal endoscopic lesions in diabetic outpatients with dyspepsia. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Adult diabetic outpatients with dyspepsia attending the KNH diabetic clinic. RESULTS: Of the 257 randomly selected diabetic outpatients screened, 137 (53.3%) had dyspepsia. Seventy one of these patients underwent an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Fifty five (77.5%) of the 71 patients had H.pylori infection identified by rapid urease test and histology. The prevalence of H. pylori increased with HbA1c level but there was no statistically significant association with poor glycaemic control (HbA1c >7.0%). Forty eight (67.6%) of the 71 had gastritis, 17 (25.7%) had duodenitis, eight (11.3%) had oesophageal candidiasis, seven (9.9%) had bile reflux, six (8.5%) had reflux oesophagitis, six (8.5%) had ulcers (five duodenal, one gastric) and one (1.4%) had gastric cancer. Fourteen (19%) had endoscopically normal mucosa. The prevalence of H. pylori was 82.3% (32/38) in patients with antral gastritis. All ulcers and the cancer lesion (adenocarcinoma) were associated with H. pylori. Histological gastritis was found in 57 (81.8%) and was significantly associated with H. pylori. CONCLUSION: Although dyspepsia is common in diabetic outpatients at KNH, endoscopic findings and H. pylori status are not significantly different from those of non-diabetic population.

Irritable bowel syndrome in Kenyans.

OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence and clinical presentation of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in black Kenyans. DESIGN: A retrospective study. SETTING: Nairobi Hospital, an urban private institution. SUBJECTS: Case files of all patients presenting with abdominal pain. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of IBS using modified Manning's Symptomatic criteria in 223 consecutive adult patients presenting with abdominal pain and discomfort who had normal clinical findings and normal general and gastrointestinal investigations. RESULTS: Out of the 3472 patient files screened, there were 281 patients who fitted the diagnosis of irritable bowel syndrome giving an overall prevalence of 8%. The mean age was 40 years with range of 11 to 75 years with a peak prevalence in the 3rd decade. The male to female ratio of 1.4:1 being statistical significant at a p-value of 0.010. There was no statistical significant difference between the males and females in constipation and diarrhoea at p-value of 0.84 and 0.82 respectively. Fifteen percent of the patients were either on antidepressants or had been seen by a psychiatrist. Nine percent had undergone laparatomy for the abdominal pain. CONCLUSION: The Black African patient is equally as exposed to irritable bowel syndrome as is his counterpart in the western world and has similar morbidity patterns. The syndrome may account for over 10% of patients with abdominal pain presenting to gastroenterologists in Africa. Proper attention to symptomatology may lead to clinching the diagnosis without resorting to many unnecessary and expensive investigations.

Urban/rural differences in prevalence and risk factors for intestinal helminth infection in southern Malawi.

Urbanization may increase the risk of human infection with intestinal helminths. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate the prevalence, intensity and potential risk factors of acquiring such infection, among children aged 3-14 years in similar urban and rural communities in southern Malawi. Stool samples were collected from 553 children (273 urban and 280 rural). The overall prevalence of helminth infection was significantly higher in the urban subjects than in the rural (16.5% v. 3.6%; P < 0.001), mostly because of differences in the prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides infection. Living in an urban community was associated with a significantly higher risk of infection [odds ratio (OR) = 5.3; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.6-12.1], even after controlling for potential confounding factors. In the urban community, risk factors included having pools of water/sewage around houses (OR = 3.0; CI = 1.4-6.5), not wearing shoes (OR = 7.1; CI = 2.7-19.2), not attending school (OR = 2.8; CI = 1.2-6.5), having mothers with 4-8 years of education (OR = 5.2; CI = 2.0-14.0), and having mothers below 35 years of age (OR = 4.09; CI = 1.39-16.28). In this part of Africa, efforts to reduce helminth infections may best be focused on reducing geohelminth burden in urban areas.

Quality of care and its effects on utilisation of maternity services at health centre level.

OBJECTIVE: To determine antenatal attendance and place of delivery of women in Chilomoni health centre catchment area and how they perceived the quality of health care provided at the health centre. DESIGN: A cross-sectional household survey. SUBJECTS: Women aged between fifteen and forty nine years, who had delivered at least one child, and had stayed in Chilomoni health centre catchment area during the past five years. RESULTS: Of the 1108 women interviewed, 52% reported for antenatal care at the health centre, but only eight per cent used it for delivery. Reasons for not using the health centre were mainly family refusal and poor facilities at the health centre (68%). On the quality of care, 97% were satisfied with the providers' attitudes, 91% with communication, 86% with the providers technical competence in general, 97% with working hours, but only 37% were satisfied with privacy. Only four per cent were satisfied with the supply of drugs. Variables independently associated with non use of the health centre were: lack of drugs (OR 2.8, p = 001), poor ambulance service (OR 2.4, p = 0.03), poor laboratory services (OR 1.7, p = 0.001), long waiting time (OR 1.6, p = 0.02) and lack of privacy (OR 1.5, p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: Few women use Chilomoni health centre for antenatal services and still fewer use it for delivery. Reasons for not using the health centre included refusal by the family members and the poor facilities at the health centre. We recommend that the facilities at Chilomoni health centre be improved immediately.

Endoscopic findings and the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in chronic renal failure patients with dyspepsia.

BACKGROUND: Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) occurs in up to one fourth of patients with chronic renal failure (CRF). Some of the factors implicated in its causation include hypergastrinaemia, secondary hyperparathyroidism, drugs and, recently, Helicobacter pylori infection. Studies on the latter have been few, with none having been carried out in Kenya. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the upper gastrointestinal tract endoscopic findings and to determine the prevalence of H. pylori in CRF patients with dyspepsia. STUDY DESIGN AND POPULATION: A prospective study of seventy seven consecutive patients with CRF and dyspepsia compared with consecutive age, sex and socio-economically matched seventy seven controls (no CRF) with dyspepsia. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), the major referral and teaching hospital, Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: In both the study population and the controls, upper gastrointestinal endoscopy was carried out. H. pylori was tested for using the biopsy urease test and histology. Patients were considered to have H. pylori if they tested positive on both tests. OUTCOME MEASURES: Findings at endoscopy and presence of H. pylori. RESULTS: Inflammatory lesions (gastritis, duodenitis) (42%) and duodenal ulcers (18.4%) were the commonest findings in the two groups combined. The prevalence of H. pylori in the 154 subjects studied was 54.5%. There was no statistically significant difference between the prevalence of H. pylori in CRF patients (53.2%) and the controls (55.8%) (p = 0.746). Patients with endoscopically proven PUD had a very high prevalence of H. pylori (87.3%) regardless of their renal function status. CONCLUSION: Dyspepsia in patients with or without CRF was due to multiple causes and over 50% were attributable to H. pylori. The prevalence of H. pylon in dyspeptic CRF patients was similar to that in dyspeptic patients with normal renal function.

Specificity of dysuria and discharge complaints and presence of urethritis in male patients attending an STD clinic in Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the specificity of discharge and dysuria for laboratory confirmed urethritis in symptomatic men presenting to an urban STD clinic in Malawi for treatment and returning for follow up evaluation. METHODS: Clinical treatment trial where consecutive consenting men with urethritis were enrolled and administered a questionnaire, examined, tested, and given one of five urethritis treatments with an efficacy range of 33-95%. Men returning for follow up were questioned, examined, and tested. RESULTS: The presence of both discharge and dysuria were highly specific for laboratory confirmed urethritis (over 90%). Compared with men who had complaints of both discharge and dysuria, men with complaints of dysuria alone were more likely to have reported prior treatment, 72% v 48% (p = 0.003), and less likely to have had gonorrhoea, 64% v 83% (p = 0.04). Men with complaints of discharge or dysuria without evidence of discharge were rare but half of them had documented urethritis. Among men who returned for follow up, 72% had no symptoms of either discharge or dysuria. However, among the 238 men with no symptoms at follow up, laboratory documented gonorrhoea occurred in 9% and non-gonococcal urethritis in 21%. DISCUSSION: In this population of men discharge or dysuria were specific symptoms for urethritis. The symptom of dysuria should be added as an entry criterion for evaluation for urethritis in the World Health Organisation's treatment recommendations. The high prevalence of asymptomatic infection at follow up in a population of men who received suboptimal antimicrobial therapy suggests that the most effective therapy available should be given at the first visit.

Validation of the WHO diagnostic algorithm and development of an alternative scoring system for the management of women presenting with vaginal discharge in Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the performance of the WHO algorithm for the detection of cervical infection in women presenting with vaginal discharge and modify the risk assessment score for optimum effectiveness in Malawi. METHODS: 550 consecutive women presenting with non-ulcerative genitourinary complaints were interviewed and examined. Cervical infection was defined as presence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae on culture and/or Chlamydia trachomatis by EIA. Other laboratory investigations included wet mount microscopy, serology for syphilis and HIV, LED testing of cervical and vaginal secretions, and pH testing of vaginal fluid. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive values (PPV) of different algorithms were determined in the analysis. RESULTS: Cervical infection was identified in 19.5% of women (17.1% gonorrhoea, 3.7% chlamydial infection). The sensitivity/specificity/PPV of the WHO risk assessment were 43%/73%/28%, respectively by history and 62%/61%/27% with the addition of speculum examination. Using Malawi results to modify the risk assessment improved the performance to 61%/68%/31% respectively by history alone, which increased to 73%/64%/33% with bimanual examination and 72%/56%/29% with speculum examination. CONCLUSION: The sensitivity of the WHO risk assessment is low for the detection of cervical infection in Malawi. Although the Malawi risk assessment performed somewhat better on history alone, this study identified external and bimanual examination variables that improved the diagnostic performance of the algorithm in settings where speculum examination is not possible. Although the PPVs of the algorithms are low, country specific risk assessments can provide a framework for management until simple, affordable diagnostic tests for the definitive diagnosis of cervical infection are available.

Colonoscopic findings in Kenyan African patients.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the types and prevalence of colonic diseases in Kenyan African patients referred for colonoscopy with lower gastrointestinal tract symptoms. DESIGN: A cross sectional survey conducted over a two year period. SETTING: Major private hospitals in Nairobi. PATIENTS: Two hundred forty seven consecutive patients of both sexes and all ages referred for colonoscopy between January 1996 and December 1997. Only Kenyans of African origin were included. Patients were referred from all over the country though the majority of cases were from Nairobi and its surrounding districts. RESULTS: The major indications for colonoscopy were lower abdominal pain (35.6%), non-bloody diarrhoea (22.3%), constipation (21.4%) and rectal bleeding (19.8%). Nearly 53% of patients colonoscoped had abnormal mucosal findings, with the main abnormalities being: proctocolitis (20.2%), colorectal cancers (12.1%), haemorrhoids (7.3%), colorectal polyps (6.5%) and diverticulosis (5.3%). The main histological diagnosis among patients whose colonic biopsy were done included normal colonic mucosa (29%), non-specific colitis (28.5%), adenocarcinoma (18.2%), benign colonic polyp (9.7%) and ulcerative colitis (7.3%). There was one case of Crohn's colitis and five cases (3%) of infective colitis. CONCLUSION: The study shows that the African colon has a number of pathological lesions contrary to previous reported literature.