The Role of Nutritional Status on Follow-up among HIV-infected Children at a Teaching Hospital Clinic in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition and HIV infection in children interact adversely and may have a combined effect on clinical outcomes, including response to antiretroviral treatment (ART). Evidence of the role of malnutrition at the point of registration at HIV clinics is limited. This study sought to determine the role of nutritional status and other clinical factors on loss to follow-up (LTFU) among children at Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital Pediatric HIV clinic in Kumasi, Ghana. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 324 HIV-positive children aged 1.5 to 10 years old who were registered at the clinic from January 1, 2007 to June 30, 2011 were included in this retrospective study. Weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) was used to classify nutritional status. Characteristics of children who were LTFU and those who remained in care were compared using bivariate analysis and logistic regression. RESULTS: At registration, 116 (35.8%) children were severely underweight (WAZ < -3) and 72 (22.2%) were underweight (WAZ < -2). A total of 163 (50.3%) children were LTFU during the course of one year. Malnourished children compared to normal weight children (WAZ > -2) were more likely to be LTFU (P = 0.003). Initiation of antiretroviral therapy was associated with a lower risk of LTFU. In the multivariate analysis, hospital admission (OR 4.38; 95% CI 2.30, 8.34) and initiation of ART (OR 0.33; CI 0.19, 0.56) were independently associated with LTFU. CONCLUSION: Malnutrition was common among Ghanaian HIV-infected children and appeared to be associated with a higher risk of hospitalization and LTFU. Irrespective of nutritional status, the initiation of ART was associated with better retention in care.

Skull base meningiomas mimicking otitis media.

INTRODUCTION: Meningiomas are slow-growing, benign tumours originating from the arachnoid villi of the meninges. They account for 13 to 26 per cent of all intracranial neoplasms. Less than 1 per cent of all meningiomas are primary extracranial tumours of the ear and temporal bone. Intracranial meningiomas extending to the middle-ear cleft are uncommon, with fewer than 100 cases reported to date. Presenting symptoms of the latter condition may include hearing loss, tinnitus, dizziness, vertigo and facial palsy. Otitis media with effusion secondary to eustachian tube dysfunction has also been reported. AIM: To describe three patients in whom chronic otitis media was the presenting sign of skull base meningioma. METHOD: Case presentations. RESULTS: Presentation of clinical and imaging findings as well as management considerations. CONCLUSION: Meningioma involving the middle ear is an extremely rare condition, and is diagnosed by computed tomography in conjunction with magnetic resonance imaging. When biopsy is performed, the histological features, characteristic immunophenotype and ultrastructural analysis are valuable aids to definitive diagnosis. In patients with no neurological symptoms, 'wait and scan' is often the best management option.

Public health approach to detection of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli: summary of two outbreaks and laboratory procedures.

Routine laboratory testing may not detect non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) reliably. Active clinical, epidemiological, environmental health, and laboratory collaboration probably influence successful detection and study of non-O157 STEC infection. We summarized two outbreak investigations in which such coordinated efforts identified non-O157 STEC disease and led to effective control measures. Outbreak 1 involved illness associated with consuming unpasteurized apple cider from a local orchard. Public health personnel were notified by a local hospital; stool specimens from ill persons contained O111 STEC. Outbreak 2 involved bloody diarrhoea at a correctional facility. Public health personnel were notified by the facility infection control officer; O45 STEC was the implicated agent. These reports highlight the ability of non-O157 STEC to cause outbreaks and demonstrate that a coordinated effort by clinicians, infection-control practitioners, clinical diagnostic laboratorians, and public health personnel can lead to effective identification, investigation, and prevention of non-O157 STEC disease.

The relative contribution of viral and bacterial sexually transmitted infections on HIV acquisition in southern African women in the Methods for Improving Reproductive Health in Africa study.

We assess the relative contribution of viral and bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) on HIV acquisition among southern African women in a nested case-control study within the Methods for Improving Reproductive Health in Africa (MIRA) trial. Cases were women with incident HIV infection; controls were HIV-uninfected at the time of case seroconversion selected in a 1 to 3 case to control ratio (risk-set sampling), matched on study site and time of follow-up. Conditional logistic regression models were used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and population-attributable fractions (PAF). Among 4948 enrolled women, we analysed 309 cases and 927 controls. The overall HIV incidence rate was 4.0 per 100 women-years. The incidence of HIV infection was markedly higher in women who had prevalent Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) (AOR: 2.14; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.55-2.96), incident HSV-2 (AOR: 4.43; 95% CI: 1.77-11.05) and incident Neisseria gonorrhoeae (AOR: 6.92; 95% CI: 3.01-15.90). The adjusted PAF of HIV incidence for prevalent HSV-2 was 29.0% (95% CI: 16.8-39.3), for incident HSV-2 2.1% (95% CI: 0.6-3.6) and for incident N. gonorrhoeae 4.1% (95% CI: 2.5-5.8). Women's greatest risk factors for HIV acquisition were incident bacterial and viral STIs. Women-centred interventions aimed at decreasing HIV incidence in young African women need to address these common co-morbid conditions.

Patterns and implications of medical pluralism among HIV/AIDS patients in rural South Africa.

In some societies, medical pluralism has been demonstrated to delay access to care. We identified sources of health care, and explored utilization patterns and triggers of care-seeking behavior among HIV/AIDS patients in rural South Africa. A longitudinal qualitative study consisting of in-depth interviews was conducted. We purposively sampled thirty-two adult HIV clinic attendees. A high degree of medical pluralism occurred among participants before initiation of antiretroviral treatment (ART). After ART initiation, participants predominantly used the HIV/ART clinic, and utilization of private and traditional facilities decreased. Patterns included both concurrent and sequential pathways to public, private and traditional health sectors. HIV diagnosis and treatment were delayed despite early contact with health systems. Therefore, use of multiple health care modalities before ART initiation can lead to delayed HIV testing and ART initiation. Integrated-care has the potential to mitigate the impact of medical pluralism on access to HIV-related services over the longer term.

Effect of elevated intra-abdominal pressure and hyperoxia on portal vein blood flow, hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis in a rat model.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Indications for a laparoscopic approach for the management of biliary atresia in children are not clearly defined. We have recently shown that persistent intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) significantly decreased portal vein (PV) flow. Ventilation with a high concentration of oxygen after abdomen deflation raises concerns of increased oxidative stress but has also been shown to exert beneficial effects on splanchnic ischemia/reperfusion. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of IAP and hyperoxia on liver histology, hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis in a rat model of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS). METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized with intraperitoneal ketamine and xylasine. After a midline laparotomy, the PV was isolated. Ultrasonic blood flow probes were placed on the vessel for continuous measurement of regional blood flow. Mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) was continuously measured. Two large-caliber percutaneous peripheral intravenous catheters were introduced into the peritoneal cavity for inflation of air and measurement of IAP. Rats were divided into three experimental groups: 1) Sham rats were subjected to IAP of 0 mmHg; 2) ACS rats were subjected to IAP of 6 mmHg for 2 hours and were ventilated with air; and 3) ACS-O (2) rats were subjected to IAP of 6 mmHg for 2 hours and were ventilated with 100 % O (2) during the operation and ventilation was continued for 6 hours after operation. Liver structural changes, hepatocyte proliferation (using BrdU assay) and apoptosis (using Tunel assay) were determined 24 hours following operation. RESULTS: IAP at 6 mmHg caused a twofold decrease in PV flow compared to sham animals. Hyperoxia resulted in a less significant decrease in PV flow compared to air-ventilated animals. Despite a significant decrease in PV blood flow, 24 hours after abdominal deflation only a few animals demonstrated histological signs of liver damage. The small histological changes were accompanied by increased hepatocyte apoptosis and enhanced hepatocyte proliferation in 25 % of animals, suggesting a liver repair response. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a significant decrease in PV blood flow, persistent IAP for 2 hours results in few changes in liver histology, and stimulates hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis in only a few animals, supporting the presence of a recovering mechanism. Treatment with hyperoxia did not significantly change hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis.

Treatment with glutamine is associated with down-regulation of Toll-like receptor-4 and myeloid differentiation factor 88 expression and decrease in intestinal mucosal injury caused by lipopolysaccharide endotoxaemia in a rat.

Recent evidence suggests that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxaemia in a rat causes significant mucosal injury. Our objective was to determine the effects of glutamine (Gln) on Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) expression in intestinal mucosa following LPS endotoxaemia in a rat. For this purpose, male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned randomly to one of three experimental groups of 10 rats each: (i) control rats underwent intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of sterile saline once a day; (ii) rats were treated with LPS given i.p. once a day at a dose of 10 mg/kg for 48 h (two doses); and (iii) rats were pretreated with oral Gln given in drinking water (2%) 48 h before and following injection of LPS. Intestinal mucosal parameters, enterocyte proliferation and apoptosis were determined at death. TLR-4 and MyD88 mRNA expression was measured with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). TLR-4 and MyD88 protein expression were analysed by Western immunoblotting. We observed a statistically significant (P < 0.05) decrease in mucosal weight, mucosal DNA and enterocyte proliferation and a significant increase in enterocyte apoptosis in rat intestine, following LPS administration. These changes were attenuated significantly by dietary Gln. Expression of TLR-4, MyD88 and TRAF6 mRNA in the mucosal ileum was significantly higher in LPS rats versus control rats (P = 0.0006, P = 0.0015, P = 0.03, respectively) as well as TLR-4 and MyD88 protein expression. The administration of Gln reduced significantly the expression of TLR-4, MyD88 and TRAF6 (P = 0.023, P = 0.014, P = 0.035, respectively) mRNA as well as TLR-4 and MyD88 protein expression in ileum compared to LPS animals. We did not find a significant change in the expression of TLR-4, MyD88 or TRAF6 in the jejunum of different groups. We conclude that treatment with Gln was associated with down-regulation of TLR-4, MyD88 and TRAF6 expression and concomitant decrease in intestinal mucosal injury caused by LPS endotoxaemia in a rat.

Analysis of interval-censored data from circular migrant and non-migrant sexual partnerships using the EM algorithm.

In epidemiological studies where subjects are seen periodically on follow-up visits, interval-censored data occur naturally. The exact time the change of state (such as HIV seroconversion) occurs is not known exactly, only that it occurred sometime within a specific time interval. Methods of estimation for interval-censored data are readily available when data are independent. However, methods for correlated interval-censored data are not well developed. This paper considers an approach for estimating the parameters when data are interval-censored and correlated within sexual partnerships. We consider the exact event times for interval-censored observations as unobserved data, only known to be between two time points. Dependency induced by sexual partnerships is modelled as frailties assuming a gamma distribution for frailties and an exponential distribution on the time to infection. This formulation facilitates application of the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm. Maximization process maximizes the standard survival frailty model. Results show high degree of heterogeneity between sexual partnerships. Intervention strategies aimed at combating the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STI)s should treat sexual partnerships as social units and fully incorporate the effects of migration in their strategies.

Risk factors of sexually transmitted infections among migrant and non-migrant sexual partnerships from rural South Africa.

In October 1998, cohorts of circular migrant men and their non-migrant sexual partners, and non-migrant men and their non-migrant sexual partners from rural South Africa were recruited and followed-up every 4 months until October 2001. At each visit, information on sociodemographic, sexual behaviour, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV was collected. In total, 553 individuals aged between 18 and 69 years were recruited. A man and his sexual partner(s) form a sexual partnership. Migration status, age, marital status, age at sexual debut, recent sexual partners and HIV status were found to be important determinants of STI. The risk of STI varies (sigma2 = 1.45, P < 0.001) significantly across sexual partnerships even after controlling for important determinants. The variance implies substantial correlation (0.59) between members of the same sexual partnership. Ignoring this correlation leads to incorrect inference. Migration contributes significantly to the spread of STIs. Community interventions of HIV/STI should target co-transmitter sexual partnerships rather than high-risk individuals.

Risk factors for HIV infection among women in Carletonville, South Africa: migration, demography and sexually transmitted diseases.

We investigate the prevalence of, and risk factors for, HIV infection among women in an urban South African setting. A random sample of 834 women was recruited into a community-based cross-sectional study. HIV prevalence was 37.1% with higher prevalence among migrant women (46.0%) than non-migrant women (34.7%), (odds ratio [OR]=1.61, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.11-2.31). The highest HIV prevalence (50.9%) was between ages 26 and 35 years. Having two or more lifetime partners increased the risk of HIV infection (OR=4.88, 95% CI: 3.01-7.89). Migration, age, marital status, alcohol use, syphilis and gonorrhoea were independently associated with HIV infection. Migration increases the risk of HIV infection. Provision of services to treat sexually transmitted diseases and educational empowerment programmes that will promote safer sex among migrant women are urgently needed.

Cutaneous leucocytoclastic vasculitis associated with omeprazole.

Omeprazole is a potent proton pump inhibitor and usually is well tolerated. Adverse effects of this drug have been reported in up to 5% of patients, most of which are trivial and disappear rapidly on discontinuation of the drug. Skin adverse reactions attributed to omeprazole are uncommon and include rashes, urticaria, angio-oedema, acute disseminated epidermal necrolysis, lichen spinulosus, and contact dermatitis. Cutaneous leucocytoclastic vasculitis (CLV) has not been previously reported in association with omeprazole. The development of CLV in an elderly patient four weeks after starting treatment with omeprazole is described.

Syndrome packets and health worker training improve sexually transmitted disease case management in rural South Africa: randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are important co-factors in HIV transmission. We studied the impact of health worker training and STD syndrome packets (containing recommended drugs, condoms, partner notification cards and information leaflets) on the quality of STD case management in primary care clinics in rural South Africa. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial of five matched pairs of clinics compared the intervention with routine syndromic management. Outcomes were measured by simulated patients using standardized scripts, and included the proportion given recommended drugs; correctly case managed (given recommended drugs plus condoms and partner cards); adequately counselled; reporting good staff attitude; and consulted in privacy. RESULTS: At baseline, the quality of STD case management was similarly poor in both groups. Only 36 and 46% of simulated patients visiting intervention and control clinics, respectively, were given recommended drugs. After the intervention, intervention clinics provided better case management than controls: 88 versus 50% (P < 0.01) received recommended drugs; 83 versus 12% (P < 0.005) were correctly case managed; 68 versus 46% (P = 0.06) were adequately counselled; 84 versus 58% experienced good staff attitude (P = 0.07); and 92 versus 86% (P = 0.4) were consulted privately. A syndrome packet cost US$1.50; the incremental cost was US$6.80. The total intervention cost equalled 0.3% of annual district health expenditure. INTERPRETATION: A simple and affordable health service intervention achieved substantial improvements in STD case management. Although this is a critical component of STD control and can reduce HIV transmission, community-level interventions to influence health-seeking behaviour are also needed.

Barriers to implementing South Africa's Termination of Pregnancy Act in rural KwaZulu/Natal.

INTRODUCTION: South Africa's Termination of Pregnancy Act, the most liberal abortion law in Africa, took effect early in 1997. In spite of the anticipated benefits to women's health, however, public reaction has been mixed. In the country's most populous province, KwaZulu/Natal, opposition is strong and most health care providers have refused to provide the service. This study explored attitudes and beliefs about abortion and the Termination of Pregnancy Act among primary care nurses and community members in a rural district in order to better understand barriers to implementation of the new law. METHODS: As part of a community survey on women's reproductive health (n = 138), questions on knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about abortion were asked, as well as awareness of the provisions of the Termination of Pregnancy Act. To better understand the perspectives of health care workers, a survey among primary care nurses on duty (n = 25) was also conducted. In-depth interviews were conducted with both nurses and women in the community to further pursue issues raised in the two surveys. RESULTS: Support for the Act was low (11%) among both community members and nurses, and few supported abortion on request (18 and 6%, respectively). Within each group, however, a clear hierarchy of support was observed: a majority of nurses (56%) and community members (58%) supported abortion in the case of rape or incest, or if the continued pregnancy would endanger a woman's health (61 and 56%, respectively), but few supported abortion for social or economic reasons. In-depth interviews revealed that abortion is seen as contrary to prevailing community norms; nurses were poorly informed about the Termination of Pregnancy Act and felt confused in their professional responsibilities. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Legalization alone cannot ensure implementation of abortion services. In South Africa, extensive media coverage prior to passage of the law ensured almost universal awareness of the Act, but little public education took place at the same time. In spite of general opposition to the law, however, there is an encouraging level of support for abortion in some circumstances. These findings suggest that abortion services can be implemented, even in conservative rural areas, but that a process of information dissemination and community consent prior to implementation is essential. Locating abortion within broader reproductive health services could be an effective way to improve access and acceptability.

Traditional healers as tuberculosis treatment supervisors: precedent and potential.

SETTING: Hlabisa, South Africa. OBJECTIVE: To determine precedent and potential for traditional healers to act as tuberculosis (TB) treatment supervisors. METHODS: Literature review to describe precedent for the involvement of traditional healers in TB treatment supervision. Interviews with 100 TB patients to determine use of healers and their acceptability as supervisors. Interviews with 24 healers in the project sub-district to determine willingness to act as supervisors. RESULTS: Despite extensive literature on the interaction between traditional healers and conventional health services, including descriptions of traditional understandings of TB, no published work was identified that reported supervision of TB patients by traditional healers. Of 100 patients interviewed, only 10% had used a healer as the first health provider for their illness, but 40% had attended a healer at some time prior to diagnosis. Although only 4% believe healers can cure TB, 84% would consider choosing a healer as a treatment supervisor. Of the 24 healers, 15 (63%) distinguished between two types of diagnosis made among patients with symptoms suggestive of TB: TB and idliso. Idliso is poisoning or bewitching, and is said to be best cured by healers, while TB is infectious and cannot be cured by healers. Most healers (88%) reported having referred patients with possible TB to hospital in the past; all were keen to negotiate collaboration with health services, and 92% were willing to act as treatment supervisors. CONCLUSIONS: While there is little reported precedent for traditional healers to interact formally with tuberculosis treatment services, the potential for collaboration seems to be high, at least in our setting.

Inadequate treatment for sexually transmitted diseases in the South African private health sector.

Correct management of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is important for their control, and to reduce HIV transmission. Guidelines on syndromic management of STDs were introduced by the provincial Department of Health in KwaZulu/Natal (KZN) in South Africa in 1995. The drug treatment provided for STDs by the 11 private general practitioners in one rural district was assessed and compared with provincial guidelines. Information was gathered through semistructured interviews which asked the 11 doctors, who all dispense prescribed drugs as part of the consultation fee, how they would treat 3 hypothetical cases of STD syndromes. In all 33 prescriptions, the treatment did not correspond exactly with provincial recommendations and only 3 (9%) were adequate. All other prescriptions were inadequate because dose or duration was incorrect in 6 (18%), or because incorrect drugs were prescribed in 24 (73%) of cases. Eight of the 11 doctors did not provide adequate treatment for any of their cases. A continuing medical education programme for the doctors and their staff was devised to improve the STD treatment in the private sector in this South African district.

PIP: The correct management of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) can help to control and reduce the spread of HIV infection. To that end, guidelines upon the syndromic management of STDs were introduced by the provincial Department of Health in KwaZulu/Natal (KZN) in South Africa in 1995. Drug treatment provided for STDs by 11 private general practitioners in 1 rural district was investigated and compared with provincial guidelines. Study data were collected through semi-structured interviews in which the doctors were asked how they would treat 3 hypothetical cases of STD. In all of the 33 prescriptions written by the physicians, the treatment failed to correspond exactly with provincial recommendations and only 3 were adequate. The other prescriptions were inadequate because either the dose or regimen duration was incorrect in 6 cases, and because the wrong drugs were prescribed in 24 cases. 8 of the physicians did not provide adequate treatment for any of their cases. A continuing medical education program for the doctors and their staff was subsequently created to improve the private sector treatment of STDs in KZN.

STD syndrome packets: improving syndromic management of sexually transmitted diseases in developing countries.

OBJECTIVE: To design, introduce, and evaluate "STD syndrome packets" containing recommended drugs for each syndrome, four condoms, a partner treatment card, and a patient information leaflet, with the goal of improving sexually transmitted disease (STD) case management. METHODS: Packet design evolved around available packaging technology, informed by pilot testing with nurses working in primary care clinics, doctors in private medical practices, and patients with an STD, in Hlabisa, South Africa. Evaluation 1 year later included analysis of distribution records and interviews with 16 nurses and 64 patients. RESULTS: A cheap packet (2 U. S. cents each, excluding contents) compatible with current legislation was designed and introduced to six public sector clinics and as a short pilot to five private medical practices. Four thousand eighty-five packets were distributed to the clinics, equivalent to approximately 115% of the STDs reported over that period. All 16 nurses reported using the packets, but only 63% did so all the time because of occasional supply problems. All believed the packets improved treatment by saving time (75%), improving supply of condoms and partner cards (44%), and making treatment easier (56%). Patients also responded positively, and most said they would buy a packet (up to $5) at a pharmacy (84%) or store (63%) if available. CONCLUSIONS: The STD syndrome packets have the potential to improve STD syndromic management by standardizing therapy and improving the supply of condoms, partner cards, and information leaflets. Packets are popular with practitioners and patients, but consistent supply is essential for maximal impact. There may be scope for social marketing of the packets, which could further increase use.

PIP: As part of an intervention to improve the syndromic management of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), the acceptability of STD syndrome packets was tested in Hlabisa, South Africa. The packets contained drugs recommended for each syndrome, four condoms, a partner treatment card, and a patient information sheet. 4085 such packets were distributed, at a cost of US$0.02 each, to six public sector clinics during the 1-year study period. These clinics treated a total of 3535 STD patients in that time period. Interviews conducted with 16 clinic nurses 1 year after project implementation indicated that they thought the packets made treatment easier and saved staff time. 10 nurses indicated they used the packets all the time; the remaining 6 used them most of the time, with gaps attributed to supply shortages. Also interviewed were 64 STD patients who received the packets. 84% indicated they would be willing to buy the packet from a pharmacy and 63% would buy it from a general store. 67% of STD patients were prepared to spend up to US$5 on the packet. These findings suggest that STD packets have an important role to play in increasing access to STD treatment in developing countries. Use could be increased even further by social marketing of the packets.

Unrecognized sexually transmitted infections in rural South African women: a hidden epidemic.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are of major public health concern in developing countries, not least because they facilitate transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The present article presents estimates of the prevalence, on any given day, of STIs among women in rural South Africa and the proportion who are asymptomatic, symptomatic but not seeking care, and symptomatic and seeking care. The following data sources from Hlabisa district were used: clinical surveillance for STI syndromes treated in health facilities, microbiological studies among women attending antenatal and family planning clinics, and a community survey. Population census provided denominator data. Adequacy of drug treatment was determined through quality of care surveys. Of 55,974 women aged 15-49 years, a total of 13,943 (24.9%) were infected on any given day with at least one of Trichomonas vaginalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, or Treponema pallidum. Of the women investigated, 6697 (48%) were asymptomatic, 6994 (50%) were symptomatic but not seeking care, 238 (1.7%) were symptomatic and would seek care, and 14 (0.3%) were seeking care on that day. Only 9 of the 14 women (65%) were adequately treated. STIs remained untreated because either women were asymptomatic or the symptoms were not recognized and acted upon. Improved case management alone is therefore unlikely to have a major public health impact. Improving partner treatment and women's awareness of symptoms is essential, while the potential of mass STI treatment needs to be explored.

PIP: Estimates of the prevalence, on any given day, of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among rural South African women and the proportion of these women who are asymptomatic, symptomatic but not seeking care, and symptomatic and seeking care were developed through reference to data from the Hlabisa health district (KwaZulu/Natal). The prevalence of HIV among women attending antenatal clinics in Hlabisa rose from 4.2% in 1992 to 22% in 1997. Data sources included clinical surveillance for STI syndromes treated in health facilities, microbiologic studies among women attending antenatal and family planning clinics, and a community survey. The 1991 population census provided denominator data. It was estimated that, on any given day, 13,943 district women 15-49 years of age were infected with at least one STI--a point prevalence of 24.9% of the resident female population in this age group. Of these women, 6697 (48%) were asymptomatic and 7246 (52%) were symptomatic. Only 252 symptomatic women (2%) sought care and, of these, just 164 (65%) received adequate treatment. The majority of women with an STI were in the 15-29 year age group. Pregnant women were significantly less likely than nonpregnant women to have an asymptomatic infection (1% vs. 59%). Among nonpregnant women, syphilis and Trichomonas vaginalis were more likely to be asymptomatic (67% and 58%, respectively) than infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae (37%) or Chlamydia trachomatis (36%). These findings indicate that improved STI case management alone is unlikely to improve STI control. Improving women's recognition of and treatment-seeking behavior for abnormal urogenital symptoms should increase the numbers treated, but a large burden of asymptomatic infection will remain unless screening or mass treatment is considered.