The origin and evolution of green algal and plant actins.

The Viridiplantae are subdivided into two groups: the Chlorophyta, which includes the Chlorophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae, Ulvophyceae, and Prasinophyceae; and the Streptophyta, which includes the Charophyceae and all land plants. Within the Streptophyta, the actin genes of the angiosperms diverge nearly simultaneously from each other before the separation of monocots and dicots. Previous evolutionary analyses have provided limited insights into the gene duplications that have produced these complex gene families. We address the origin and diversification of land plant actin genes by studying the phylogeny of actins within the green algae, ferns, and fern allies. Partial genomic sequences or cDNAs encoding actin were characterized from Cosmarium botrytis (Zygnematales), Selaginella apoda (Selaginellales), Anemia phyllitidis (Polypodiales), and Psilotum triquetrum (Psilotales). Selaginella contains at least two actin genes. One sequence (Ac2) diverges within a group of fern sequences that also includes the Psilotum Ac1 actin gene and one gymnosperm sequence (Cycas revoluta Cyc3). This clade is positioned outside of the angiosperm actin gene radiation. The second Selaginella sequence (Ac1) is the sister to all remaining land plant actin sequences, although the internal branches in this portion of the tree are very short. Use of complete actin-coding regions in phylogenetic analyses provides support for the separation of angiosperm actins into two classes. N-terminal "signature" sequence analyses support these groupings. One class (VEG) includes actin genes that are often expressed in vegetative structures. The second class (REP) includes actin genes that trace their ancestry within the vegetative actins and contains members that are largely expressed in reproductive structures. Analysis of intron positions within actin genes shows that sequences from both Selaginella and Cosmarium contain the conserved 20-3, 152-1, and 356-3 introns found in many members of the Streptophyta. In addition, the Cosmarium actin gene contains a novel intron at position 76-1.

CXCR4 and CD4 mediate a rapid CD95-independent cell death in CD4(+) T cells.

AIDS is characterized by a progressive decrease of CD4(+) helper T lymphocytes. Destruction of these cells may involve programmed cell death, apoptosis. It has previously been reported that apoptosis can be induced even in noninfected cells by HIV-1 gp120 and anti-gp120 antibodies. HIV-1 gp120 binds to T cells via CD4 and the chemokine coreceptor CXCR4 (fusin/LESTR). Therefore, we investigated whether CD4 and CXCR4 mediate gp120-induced apoptosis. We used human peripheral blood lymphocytes, malignant T cells, and CD4/CXCR4 transfectants, and found cell death induced by both cell surface receptors, CD4 and CXCR4. The induced cell death was rapid, independent of known caspases, and lacking oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation. In addition, the death signals were not propagated via p56(lck) and Gialpha. However, the cells showed chromatin condensation, morphological shrinkage, membrane inversion, and reduced mitochondrial transmembrane potential indicative of apoptosis. Significantly, apoptosis was exclusively observed in CD4(+) but not in CD8(+) T cells, and apoptosis triggered via CXCR4 was inhibited by stromal cell-derived factor-1, the natural CXCR4 ligand. Thus, this mechanism of apoptosis might contribute to T cell depletion in AIDS and might have major implications for therapeutic intervention.