Hydroxyurea ameliorates atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice by potentially modulating Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 protein through the gut microbiota.

Rationale: The efficacy and mechanism of hydroxyurea in the treatment of atherosclerosis have rarely been reported. The goal of this study was to investigate the efficacy of hydroxyurea in high-fat diet-fed ApoE-/- mice against atherosclerosis and examine the possible mechanism underlying treatment outcomes. Methods: ApoE-/- mice were fed a high-fat diet for 1 month and then administered hydroxyurea by gavage continuously for 2 months. Aortic root hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining and oil red O staining were used to verify the efficacy of hydroxyurea; biochemical methods and ELISA were used to detect changes in relevant metabolites in serum. 16S rRNA was used to detect composition changes in the intestinal bacterial community of animals after treatment with hydroxyurea. Metabolomics methods were used to identify fecal metabolites and their changes. Immunohistochemical staining and ELISA were used for the localization and quantification of intestinal NPC1L1. Results: We showed that aortic root HE staining and oil red O staining determined the therapeutic efficacy of hydroxyurea in the treatment of atherosclerosis in high-fat diet-fed ApoE-/- mice. Serological tests verified the ability of hydroxyurea to lower total serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol. The gut microbiota was significantly altered after HU treatment and was significantly different from that after antiplatelet and statin therapy. Meanwhile, a metabolomic study revealed that metabolites, including stearic acid, palmitic acid and cholesterol, were significantly enriched in mouse feces. Further histological and ELISAs verified that the protein responsible for intestinal absorption of cholesterol in mice, NPC1L1, was significantly reduced after hydroxyurea treatment. Conclusions: In high-fat diet-fed ApoE-/- mice, hydroxyurea effectively treated atherosclerosis, lowered serum cholesterol, modulated the gut microbiota at multiple levels and affected cholesterol absorption by reducing NPC1L1 in small intestinal epithelial cells.

Structural basis for the transformation of the traditional medicine berberine by bacterial nitroreductase.

The bacterial nitroreductases (NRs) NfsB and NfsA are conserved homodimeric FMN-dependent flavoproteins that are responsible for the reduction of nitroaromatic substrates. Berberine (BBR) is a plant-derived isoquinoline alkaloid with a large conjugated ring system that is widely used in the treatment of various diseases. It was recently found that the gut microbiota convert BBR into dihydroberberine (dhBBR, the absorbable form) mediated by bacterial NRs. The molecular basis for the transformation of BBR by the gut microbiota remains unclear. Here, kinetic studies showed that NfsB from Escherichia coli (EcNfsB), rather than EcNfsA, is responsible for the conversion of BBR to dhBBR in spite of a low reaction rate. The crystal structure of the EcNfsB-BBR complex showed that BBR binds into the active pocket at the dimer interface, and its large conjugated plane stacks above the plane of the FMN cofactor in a nearly parallel orientation. BBR is mainly stabilized by π-stacking interactions with both neighboring aromatic residues and FMN. Structure-based mutagenesis studies further revealed that the highly conserved Phe70 and Phe199 are important residues for the conversion of BBR. The structure revealed that the C6 atom of BBR (which receives the hydride) is ∼7.5 Šfrom the N5 atom of FMN (which donates the hydride), which is too distant for hydride transfer. Notably, several well ordered water molecules make hydrogen-bond/van der Waals contacts with the N1 atom of BBR in the active site, which probably donate protons in conjunction with electron transfer from FMN. The structure-function studies revealed the mechanism for the recognition and binding of BBR by bacterial NRs and may help to understand the conversion of BBR by the gut microbiota.

Berberine treats atherosclerosis via a vitamine-like effect down-regulating Choline-TMA-TMAO production pathway in gut microbiota.

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) derived from the gut microbiota is an atherogenic metabolite. This study investigates whether or not berberine (BBR) could reduce TMAO production in the gut microbiota and treat atherosclerosis. Effects of BBR on TMAO production in the gut microbiota, as well as on plaque development in atherosclerosis were investigated in the culture of animal intestinal bacterial, HFD-fed animals and atherosclerotic patients, respectively. We found that oral BBR in animals lowers TMAO biosynthesis in intestine through interacting with the enzyme/co-enzyme of choline-trimethylamine lyase (CutC) and flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) in the gut microbiota. This action was performed by BBR's metabolite dihydroberberine (a reductive BBR by nitroreductase in the gut microbiota), via a vitamine-like effect down-regulating Choline-TMA-TMAO production pathway. Oral BBR decreased TMAO production in animal intestine, lowered blood TMAO and interrupted plaque formation in blood vessels in the HFD-fed hamsters. Moreover, 21 patients with atherosclerosis exhibited the average decrease of plaque score by 3.2% after oral BBR (0.5 g, bid) for 4 months (*P < 0.05, n = 21); whereas the plaque score in patients treated with rosuvastatin plus aspirin, or clopidogrel sulfate or ticagrelor (4 months, n = 12) increased by 1.9%. TMA and TMAO in patients decreased by 38 and 29% in faeces (*P < 0.05; *P < 0.05), and 37 and 35% in plasma (***P < 0.001; *P < 0.05), after 4 months on BBR. BBR might treat atherosclerotic plaque at least partially through decreasing TMAO in a mode of action similar to that of vitamins.

Esterases From Bifidobacteria Exhibit the Conversion of Albiflorin in Gut Microbiota.

Bifidobacteria is an important microbe that inhabits the human gut. It is capable of metabolizing complex compounds in the human diet. Albiflorin, an antidepressant natural product from Radix Paeoniae Alba in China, is difficult to absorb after oral administration, and its metabolism has been proven to be closely related to the gut microbiota. In this study, we demonstrated in vitro that several Bifidobacteria species were able to convert albiflorin to benzoic acid, and four esterases (B2, B3, B4, and BL) from Bifidobacterium breve and Bifidobacterium longum were found through genome mining and modeled by SWISS-MODEL. B2 and B3 presented the strongest albiflorin metabolism ability. The optimal conditions, including temperature, buffer, and pH, for the conversion of albiflorin by the four esterases were investigated. Furthermore, the effect of esterase on the metabolism of albiflorin in vivo was confirmed by transplanting bacteria containing esterase B2. This study demonstrated the vital role of esterases from Bifidobacteria in the metabolism of natural compounds containing ester bonds, which could contribute to the development of new enzymes, microbial evolution, and probiotic adjuvant compounds for treatment.

The potential biological effects of quercetin based on pharmacokinetics and multi-targeted mechanism in vivo.

Quercetin is a plant-derived polyphenol flavonoid that has been proven to be effective for many diseases. However, the mechanism and in vivo metabolism of quercetin remains to be clarified. It achieves a wide range of biological effects through various metabolites, gut microbiota and its metabolites, systemic mediators produced by inflammation and oxidation, as well as by multiple mechanisms. The all-round disease treatment of quercetin is achieved through the organic combination of multiple channels. Therefore, this article clarifies the metabolic process of quercetin in the body, and explores the new pattern of action of quercetin in the treatment of diseases.

Transformation of berberine to its demethylated metabolites by the CYP51 enzyme in the gut microbiota.

Berberine (BBR) is an isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from Coptis chinensis that improves diabetes, hyperlipidemia and inflammation. Due to the low oral bioavailability of BBR, its mechanism of action is closely related to the gut microbiota. This study focused on the CYP51 enzyme of intestinal bacteria to elucidate a new mechanism of BBR transformation by demethylation in the gut microbiota through multiple analytical techniques. First, the docking of BBR and CYP51 was performed; then, the pharmacokinetics of BBR was determined in ICR mice in vivo, and the metabolism of BBR in the liver, kidney, gut microbiota and single bacterial strains was examined in vitro. Moreover, 16S rRNA analysis of ICR mouse feces indicated the relationship between BBR and the gut microbiota. Finally, recombinant E. coli containing cyp51 gene was constructed and the CYP51 enzyme lysate was induced to express. The metabolic characteristics of BBR were analyzed in the CYP51 enzyme lysate system. The results showed that CYP51 in the gut microbiota could bind stably with BBR, and the addition of voriconazole (a specific inhibitor of CYP51) slowed down the metabolism of BBR, which prevented the production of the demethylated metabolites thalifendine and berberrubine. This study demonstrated that CYP51 promoted the demethylation of BBR and enhanced its intestinal absorption, providing a new method for studying the metabolic transformation mechanism of isoquinoline alkaloids in vivo.

Biotransformation of Timosaponin BII into Seven Characteristic Metabolites by the Gut Microbiota.

Timosaponin BII is one of the most abundant Anemarrhena saponins and is in a phase II clinical trial for the treatment of dementia. However, the pharmacological activity of timosaponin BII does not match its low bioavailability. In this study, we aimed to determine the effects of gut microbiota on timosaponin BII metabolism. We found that intestinal flora had a strong metabolic effect on timosaponin BII by HPLC-MS/MS. At the same time, seven potential metabolites (M1-M7) produced by rat intestinal flora were identified using HPLC/MS-Q-TOF. Among them, three structures identified are reported in gut microbiota for the first time. A comparison of rat liver homogenate and a rat liver microsome incubation system revealed that the metabolic behavior of timosaponin BII was unique to the gut microbiota system. Finally, a quantitative method for the three representative metabolites was established by HPLC-MS/MS, and the temporal relationship among the metabolites was initially clarified. In summary, it is suggested that the metabolic characteristics of gut microbiota may be an important indicator of the pharmacological activity of timosaponin BII, which can be applied to guide its application and clinical use in the future.

Determination and Application of Nineteen Monoamines in the Gut Microbiota Targeting Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, and Glutamic Acid Metabolic Pathways.

It has been reported that monoamine neurotransmitters can be produced by gut microbiota, and that several related metabolites of amino acids in these pathways are associated with nervous system (NVS) diseases. Herein, we focused on three pathways, namely, phenylalanine (Phe), tryptophan (Trp), and glutamic acid (Glu), and established an underivatized liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the quantification of nineteen monoamine neurotransmitters and related metabolites in the gut microbiota. The neurotransmitters and related metabolites included Phe, tyrosine (Tyr), l-dopa (Dopa), dopamine (DA), 3-methoxytyramine, Trp, hydroxytryptophan, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA), kynurenine (KN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), melatonin, tryptamine (TA), indole-3-lactic acid (ILA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), indolyl-3-propionic acid (IPA), Glu, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and acetylcholine (Ach). A fluoro-phenyl bonded column was used for separation, and the mobile phase consisted of methanol:acetonitrile (1:1) and water, with 0.2% formic acid in both phases. The compounds exhibited symmetric peak shapes and sufficient sensitivity under a total analysis time of 8.5 min. The method was fully validated with acceptable linearity, accuracy, precision, matrix effect, extraction recovery, and stability. The results showed that neurotransmitters, such as Dopa, DA, 5-HT, GABA, and Ach, were present in the gut microbiota. The metabolic pathway of Trp was disordered under depression, with lower levels of 5-HT, 5-HIAA, KN, KYNA, TA, ILA, IAA, IPA, and Glu, and a higher ratio of KYNA/KN. In addition, some first-line NVS drugs, such as sertraline, imipramine, and chlorpromazine, showed regulatory potential on these pathways in the gut microbiota.

Oral berberine improves brain dopa/dopamine levels to ameliorate Parkinson's disease by regulating gut microbiota.

The phenylalanine-tyrosine-dopa-dopamine pathway provides dopamine to the brain. In this process, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate-limiting enzyme that hydroxylates tyrosine and generates levodopa (L-dopa) with tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) as a coenzyme. Here, we show that oral berberine (BBR) might supply H• through dihydroberberine (reduced BBR produced by bacterial nitroreductase) and promote the production of BH4 from dihydrobiopterin; the increased BH4 enhances TH activity, which accelerates the production of L-dopa by the gut bacteria. Oral BBR acts in a way similar to vitamins. The L-dopa produced by the intestinal bacteria enters the brain through the circulation and is transformed to dopamine. To verify the gut-brain dialog activated by BBR's effect, Enterococcus faecalis or Enterococcus faecium was transplanted into Parkinson's disease (PD) mice. The bacteria significantly increased brain dopamine and ameliorated PD manifestation in mice; additionally, combination of BBR with bacteria showed better therapeutic effect than that with bacteria alone. Moreover, 2,4,6-trimethyl-pyranylium tetrafluoroborate (TMP-TFB)-derivatized matrix-assisted laser desorption mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) imaging of dopamine identified elevated striatal dopamine levels in mouse brains with oral Enterococcus, and BBR strengthened the imaging intensity of brain dopamine. These results demonstrated that BBR was an agonist of TH in Enterococcus and could lead to the production of L-dopa in the gut. Furthermore, a study of 28 patients with hyperlipidemia confirmed that oral BBR increased blood/fecal L-dopa by the intestinal bacteria. Hence, BBR might improve the brain function by upregulating the biosynthesis of L-dopa in the gut microbiota through a vitamin-like effect.

Transformation of berberine to its demethylated metabolites by the CYP51 enzyme in the gut microbiota / 药物分析学报

Berberine(BBR)is an isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from Coptis chinensis that improves diabetes,hyperlipidemia and inflammation.Due to the low oral bioavailability of BBR,its mechanism of action is closely related to the gut microbiota.This study focused on the CYP51 enzyme of intestinal bacteria to elucidate a new mechanism of BBR transformation by demethylation in the gut microbiota through multiple analytical techniques.First,the docking of BBR and CYP51 was performed;then,the pharma-cokinetics of BBR was determined in ICR mice in vivo,and the metabolism of BBR in the liver,kidney,gut microbiota and single bacterial strains was examined in vitro.Moreover,16S rRNA analysis of ICR mouse feces indicated the relationship between BBR and the gut microbiota.Finally,recombinant E.coli con-taining cyp51 gene was constructed and the CYP51 enzyme lysate was induced to express.The metabolic characteristics of BBR were analyzed in the CYP51 enzyme lysate system.The results showed that CYP51 in the gut microbiota could bind stably with BBR,and the addition of voriconazole(a specific inhibitor of CYP51)slowed down the metabolism of BBR,which prevented the production of the demethylated metabolites thalifendine and berberrubine.This study demonstrated that CYP51 promoted the deme-thylation of BBR and enhanced its intestinal absorption,providing a new method for studying the metabolic transformation mechanism of isoquinoline alkaloids in vivo.

Transforming of Triptolide into Characteristic Metabolites by the Gut Microbiota.

The importance of the gut microbiota in drug metabolism, especially in that of nonabsorbable drugs, has become known. The aim of this study was to explore the metabolites of triptolide by the gut microbiota. With high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and ion trap time-of-flight multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS and LC/MSn-IT-TOF), four metabolites of triptolide (M1, M2, M3, and M4) were found in the intestinal contents of rats. M1 and M2, were isomeric monocarbonyl-hydroxyl-substituted metabolites with molecular weights of 390. M3 and M4 were isomeric dehydrogenated metabolites with molecular weights of 356. Among the four metabolites, the dehydrogenated metabolites (M3 and M4) were reported in the gut microbiota for the first time. The metabolic behaviors of triptolide in the gut microbiota and liver microsomes of rats were further compared. The monocarbonyl-hydroxyl-substituted metabolites (M1 and M2) were generated in both systems, and another monohydroxylated metabolite (M5) was found only in the liver microsomes. The combined results suggested that the metabolism of triptolide in the gut microbiota was specific, with two characteristic, dehydrogenated metabolites. This investigation might provide a theoretical basis for the elucidation of the metabolism mechanism of triptolide and guide its proper application in clinical administration.

Berberine inhibits adipocyte differentiation, proliferation and adiposity through down-regulating galectin-3.

This study is designed to investigate the effects of berberine (BBR) on galectin-3 (Gal-3) and the relationships to its suppressive activities on adipocyte differentiation, proliferation and adiposity. Our results showed that BBR greatly suppressed the differentiation and proliferation of mouse primary preadipocytes isolated from epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT), during which the expression level of Gal-3 was down-regulated significantly. Overexpression of Gal-3 totally abolished the suppressive activities of BBR on Gal-3 expression, preadipocyte differentiation and proliferation. BBR reduced Gal-3 promoter activity, destabilized its mRNA and inhibited firefly luciferase activity of a recombinant plasmid containing the Gal-3 3' untranslated region (UTR). Furthermore, BBR up-regulated microRNA (miRNA) let-7d expression and the suppressive activity on Gal-3 3'UTR was abolished by point mutation on the let-7d binding site. In mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD), BBR up-regulated let-7d and down-regulated Gal-3 expression in eWAT; it also suppressed adipocyte differentiation and proliferation and reduced adiposity greatly. In summary, our study proves that BBR inhibits the differentiation and proliferation of adipocytes through down-regulating Gal-3, which is closely associated with its anti-obesity effect. Our results may support the future clinical application of BBR for the treatment of obesity or related diseases.

Gut Microbiota-Based Pharmacokinetics and the Antidepressant Mechanism of Paeoniflorin.

Paeoniflorin, the main component of Xiaoyao Wan, presents low oral bioavailability and unclear antidepressant mechanism. To elucidate the potential reasons for the low bioavailability of paeoniflorin and explore its antidepressant mechanism from the perspective of the gut microbiota, here, a chronic unpredictable depression model and forced swimming test were firstly performed to examine the antidepressant effects of paeoniflorin. Then the pharmacokinetic study of paeoniflorin in rats was performed based on the gut microbiota; meanwhile, the gut microbiota incubated with paeoniflorin in vitro was used to identify the possible metabolites of paeoniflorin. Molecular virtual docking experiments together with the specific inhibitor tests were applied to investigate the mechanism of paeoniflorin metabolism by the gut microbiota. Finally, the intestinal microbiota composition was analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing technology. The pharmacodynamics tests showed that paeoniflorin had significant antidepressant activity, but its oral bioavailability was 2.32%. Interestingly, we found paeoniflorin was converted into benzoic acid by the gut microbiota, and was mainly excreted through the urine with the gut metabolite benzoic acid as the prominent excreted form. Moreover, paeoniflorin could also regulate the composition of the gut microbiota by increasing the abundance of probiotics. Therefore, the metabolism effect of gut microbiota may be one of the main reasons for the low oral bioavailability of paeoniflorin. Additionally, paeoniflorin can be metabolized into benzoic acid via gut microbiota enzymes, which might exert antidepressant effects through the blood-brain barrier into the brain.

Determination of berberine-upregulated endogenous short-chain fatty acids through derivatization by 2-bromoacetophenone.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are a major group of endogenous metabolites generated by the gut microbiota and have been reported to play an important role in physical health, such as improving energy metabolism. Here, using 2-bromoacetophenone as the derivatization reagent (BP, 10 mg/mL, 40 °C for 20 min), a sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method was established for the quantitative determination of seven short-chain fatty acids in plasma and feces. The analyses were performed on a C18 column in positive multiple reaction monitoring mode. Specificity, linearity, accuracy, precision, recovery, and stability were observed within the quantitative limits of biological sample analysis. The established method has largely improved the sensitivity by 200- to 2000-fold than that in gas chromatography (GC). Especially for butyrate, the lower quantitative limit of 1 ng/mL, 1600-fold higher in sensitivity than that of GC (1.6 µg/mL), ensured the accurate determination of its low level in blood or feces (88 ± 29 ng/mL in blood, 176 ± 18 µg/g in feces). Then, the validated method was applied for therapeutic studies of berberine in hyperlipidemia hamsters in vivo and screening of 13 compounds (including five metabolites of berberine and eight typical isoquinoline alkaloids) in vitro. After berberine treatment (oral, 200 mg/kg, 2 weeks) to hyperlipidemia hamsters, the levels of butyrate were significantly upregulated in blood (77 ± 10 ng/mL vs. 117 ± 13 ng/mL, *P < 0.05) and feces (132 ± 11 µg/g vs. 547 ± 57 µg/g, ***P < 0.001), which further verified butyrate as an active endogenous metabolite in coordination with berberine to lower the blood lipids. Additionally, the berberine metabolites (M1, M2, M3), as well as two isoquinoline alkaloids (tetrandrine and dauricine), could also obviously induce the production of SCFAs (butyrate, etc.) in gut microbiota. In total, we have successfully established a new derivative LC-MS/MS method for the targeted quantitative determination of seven SCFAs in biological samples. Graphical abstract.

Gut Microbiota-Regulated Pharmacokinetics of Berberine and Active Metabolites in Beagle Dogs After Oral Administration.

Berberine (BBR) is considered a multi-target drug that has significant advantages. In contrast to its significant pharmacological effects in clinic, the plasma level of BBR is very low. Our previous work revealed that dihydroberberine (dhBBR) could be an absorbable form of BBR in the intestine, and butyrate is an active metabolite that is generated by gut bacteria in rats. In this study, for the first time we describe gut microbiota-regulated pharmacokinetics in beagle dogs after oral administration of BBR by single (50 mg/kg) or multiple doses (50 mg/kg/d) for 7 days. GC-MS, GC, LC-MS/MS, and LC/MSn-IT-TOF were used to detect dhBBR, butyrate and BBR as well as its Phase I and II metabolites, respectively. The results showed that dhBBR was not detected in dog plasma but was excreted in small amounts in the feces of dogs examined on days 3 and 7. Butyrate was generated by gut bacteria and increased by 1.3- and 1.2-fold in plasma or feces, respectively, after 7 days of BBR treatment compared to the levels before treatment. Changes of intestinal bacterial composition were analyzed by 16S rRNA genes analysis. The results presented that dogs treated with BBR for 7 days increased both the abundance of the butyrate- and the nitroreductases- producing bacteria. We also identified chemical structures of the Phase I and II metabolites and analyzed their contents in beagle dogs. Eleven metabolites were detected in plasma and feces after BBR oral administration (50 mg/kg) to dogs, including 8 metabolites of Phase I and III metabolites of Phase II. The pharmacokinetic profile indicated that the concentration of BBR in plasma was low, with a Cmax value of 36.88 ± 23.45 ng/mL. The relative content of glucuronic acid conjugates (M11) was higher than those of other metabolites (M1, M2, M12, and M14) in plasma. BBR was detected in feces, with high excreted amounts on day 3 (2625.04 ± 1726.94 µg/g) and day 7 (2793.43 ± 488.10 µg/g). In summary, this is the first study to describe gut microbiota-regulated pharmacokinetics in beagle dogs after oral administration of BBR, which is beneficial for discovery of drugs with poor absorption but good therapeutic efficacy.

Gut-brain axis metabolic pathway regulates antidepressant efficacy of albiflorin.

The gut microbiota is increasingly recognized to influence brain function through the gut-brain axis. Albiflorin, an antidepressant natural drug in China with a good safety profile, is difficult to absorb and cannot be detected in the brain after oral administration. Accordingly, the antidepressant mechanism of albiflorin in vivo has not been elucidated clearly. Methods: We identified benzoic acid as the characteristic metabolite of albiflorin in vivo and in vitro, then discovered the roles of gut microbiota in the conversion of albiflorin by carboxylesterase. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies were performed for the antidepressant activities of albiflorin in animals, and the efficacy of benzoic acid in inhibiting D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) in brain was further investigated. Results: We validated that gut microbiota transformed albiflorin to benzoic acid, a key metabolite in the intestine that could cross the blood-brain barrier and, as an inhibitor of DAAO in the brain, improved brain function and exerted antidepressant activity in vivo. Intestinal carboxylesterase was the crucial enzyme that generated benzoic acid from albiflorin. Additionally, the regulatory effect of albiflorin on the gut microbiota composition was beneficial to alleviate depression. Conclusion: Our findings suggest a novel gut-brain dialogue through intestinal benzoic acid for the treatment of depression and reveal that the gut microbiota may play a causal role in the pathogenesis and treatment of the central nervous system disease.

Gut Microbiota-Mediated Personalized Treatment of Hyperlipidemia Using Berberine.

Nitroreductases (NRs) are bacterial enzymes that reduce nitro-containing compounds. We have previously reported that NR of intestinal bacteria is a key factor promoting berberine (BBR) intestinal absorption. We show here that feeding hamsters with high fat diet (HFD) caused an increase in blood lipids and NR activity in the intestine. The elevation of fecal NR by HFD was due to the increase in either the fraction of NR-producing bacteria or their activity in the intestine. When given orally, BBR bioavailability in the HFD-fed hamsters was higher than that in those fed with normal chow (by +72%, *P<0.05). BBR (100 mg/kg/day, orally) decreased blood lipids in the HFD-fed hamsters (**P<0.01) but not in those fed with normal diet. Clinical studies indicated that patients with hyperlipidemia had higher fecal NR activity than that in the healthy individuals (**P<0.01). Similarly, after oral administration, the blood level of BBR in hyperlipidemic patients was higher than that in healthy individuals (*P<0.05). Correlation analysis revealed a positive relationship between blood BBR and fecal NR activity (r=0.703). Thus, the fecal NR activity might serve as a biomarker in the personalized treatment of hyperlipidemia using BBR.

Characterization of multidrug­resistant osteosarcoma sublines and the molecular mechanisms of resistance.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a challenge for the treatment of cancer and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. The current study exposed MG63 osteosarcoma cells to increasing concentrations of vincristine (VCR) to establish four VCR­resistant MG63/VCR cell sublines (MG63/VCR1, 2, 3 and 4). The drug resistance indices (RI) of these sublines was detected with the CCK­8 assay and determined to be163, 476, 1,247, and 2,707­fold higher than that of parental cells, respectively. These sublines also exhibited cross­resistance to doxorubicin, paclitaxel and pirarubicin. With increased RI, the proliferative capacity of these sublines was gradually reduced and cell morphology was also altered, characterized by increased formation of pseudopodia and long cytoplasmic processes at opposite poles. However, the migration capacity and expression of certain drug resistance­associated genes were not in accordance with the increased RI; multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) expression was significantly increased in these sublines compared with parental cells. However, in the highly resistant MG63/VCR3 and MG63/VCR4 cells, MDR­associated protein 1, topoisomerase II and LIM domain kinase 1 levels were significantly reduced compared with the moderately resistant MG63/VCR2 cells. Expression of glutathione S­transferase­π mRNA was determined using reverse transcription­quantitative polymerase chain reaction and determined that it was not changed between MG63 and MG63/VCR cells. The data of the present study demonstrated that the molecular alterations of drug resistance may change with the degree of drug resistance. Taking cell morphology into consideration, the intratumor clonal and phenotypic heterogeneity may be responsible for drug resistance. These MG63/VCR sublines may be a valuable tool to assess drug resistance and the underlying mechanisms, and to identify novel drug resistance­associated genes or strategies to overcome MDR in human osteosarcoma.

[Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of thiuram pesticide].

In the present paper, two SERS-active substrates (silver mirror and HNO3 etched Ag foil) were prepared for thiuram detecting and studying. SERS can provide the molecular vibrational model and structure information of thiuram at low concentration, thus providing very valuable information regarding the structure of the adsorbed molecules. This technique also allows for the in situ study of this molecule when adsorbed on a silver surface and the identification of the chemical state when they are adsorbed on the surface of silver substrate. The SERS study of thiuram was carried out at several adsorbtion concentrations, revealing that two different coordination complexes having different geometries (monodentate and bidentate) are possible adsorbed on the silver surface. These results have a significant importance regarding the understanding of the potential environmental impact of these molecules.