Gestures as Scaffolding to Learn Vocabulary in a Foreign Language.

This paper investigates the influence of gestures on foreign language (FL) vocabulary learning. In this work, we first address the state of the art in the field and then delve into the research conducted in our lab (three experiments already published) in order to finally offer a unified theoretical interpretation of the role of gestures in FL vocabulary learning. In Experiments 1 and 2, we examined the impact of gestures on noun and verb learning. The results revealed that participants exhibited better learning outcomes when FL words were accompanied by congruent gestures compared to those from the no-gesture condition. Conversely, when meaningless or incongruent gestures were presented alongside new FL words, gestures had a detrimental effect on the learning process. Secondly, we addressed the question of whether or not individuals need to physically perform the gestures themselves to observe the effects of gestures on vocabulary learning (Experiment 3). Results indicated that congruent gestures improved FL word recall when learners only observed the instructor's gestures ("see" group) and when they mimicked them ("do" group). Importantly, the adverse effect associated with incongruent gestures was reduced in the "do" compared to that in the "see" experimental group. These findings suggest that iconic gestures can serve as an effective tool for learning vocabulary in an FL, particularly when the gestures align with the meaning of the words. Furthermore, the active performance of gestures helps counteract the negative effects associated with inconsistencies between gestures and word meanings. Consequently, if a choice must be made, an FL learning strategy in which learners acquire words while making gestures congruent with their meaning would be highly desirable.

The impact of bilingualism in within-language conflict resolution: an ERP study.

We compared Spanish (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals and Spanish monolinguals in a semantic judgment relationship task in L1 that produced within-language conflict due to the coactivation of the two meanings of a Spanish homophone (e.g., "hola" and "ola" meaning "hello" and "a wave" in English). In this task, participants indicated if pairs of words were related or not ("agua-hola," "water-hello"). Conflict arose because a word ("agua," "water") not related to the orthographic form of a homophone ("hola," "hello") was related to the alternative orthographic form ("ola," "wave"). Compared to a control condition with unrelated word pairs ("peluche-hola," "teddy-hello"), the behavioral results revealed greater behavioral interference in monolinguals compared to bilinguals. In addition, electrophysiological results revealed N400 differences between monolinguals and bilinguals. These results are discussed around the impact of bilingualism on conflict resolution.

The value of banknotes: relevance of size, colour and design.

In the current study, we evaluate the relevance of three physical features when people retrieve the monetary value of banknotes. To this end, three monetary comparison tasks were designed in which in each trial a pair of banknotes were presented and participants selected the one with higher monetary value. In each task, a different banknote feature (size, colour and design) was examined and a congruent and an incongruent condition (the value of the physical feature corresponded or not to its actual value, respectively) were compared to a neutral condition (no information about the physical feature was provided). We found a pattern of facilitation and interference effects which suggests that size is the most relevant physical feature for accessing the monetary value of banknotes followed by colour. However, the availability of a variety of designs across banknotes seemed not to facilitate the performance of the task, but rather the opposite, hindering the monetary comparison task.

Corrigendum: Disentangling the role of deviant letter position on cognate word processing.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731312.].

Automaticity and cognitive control in bilingual and translation expertise.

It has been observed that different linguistic experiences might exert a differential effect on general cognitive processes. For example, research has shown that language control in professional translation differs from language control applied to other types of bilingual activities. The present study focuses on the construct of automaticity and aims at determining whether different linguistic experiences might modulate the balance between automaticity and cognitive control at the general cognitive level. Hence, monolinguals, bilinguals, and professional translators performed a memory search task that has extensively been employed to observe how automaticity is acquired through consistent practice. Comparisons between the groups showed overall differences in the ease with which the task was performed and, importantly, differences in both automaticity and cognitive control. Specifically, monolinguals showed higher levels of automaticity in the learning phase of the task, while bilinguals and professional translations carried out the task in a more controlled fashion. This pattern might have implied higher cognitive costs for the monolingual group when a switched learning condition was presented. Possibly due to previous control over the initial learning phase, bilinguals and translators were less affected by the cognitive costs associated to the reversal of the learning condition. Differences are explained in terms of professional translation and everyday bilingual practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Socioeconomic Status, Culture, and Reading Comprehension in Immigrant Students.

Research on reading comprehension in immigrant students is heterogeneous and conflicting. Differences in socioeconomic status and cultural origins are very likely confounds in determining whether differences to native pupils can be attributed to immigrant status. We collected data on 312 Spanish students of Native, of Hispanic origin-therefore with the same family language as native students- and Non-Hispanic origin, while controlling for socioeconomic status, non-verbal reasoning and school membership. We measured reading comprehension, knowledge of syntax, sentence comprehension monitoring, and vocabulary. Differences among groups appeared only in vocabulary and syntax (with poorer performance in the non-Hispanic group), with no differences in reading comprehension. However, regression analyses showed that most of the variability in reading comprehension was predicted by age, socioeconomic status, non-verbal reasoning, and comprehension monitoring. Group membership did not significantly contribute to explain reading comprehension variability. The present study supports the idea that socioeconomically disadvantaged students, both native and immigrants from diverse cultural backgrounds, irrespective of the language of origin, are probably equally at risk of poor reading comprehension.

Disentangling the Role of Deviant Letter Position on Cognate Word Processing.

The way of coding letter position has been extensively assessed during the recognition of native words, leading to the development of a new generation of models that assume more flexible letter position coding schemes compared to classical computational models such as the interactive activation (IA) model. However, determining whether similar letter position encoding mechanisms occur during the bilingual word recognition has been largely less explored despite its implications for the leading model of bilingual word recognition (multilink) as it assumes the input-coding scheme of the IA model. In this study, we aimed to examine this issue through the manipulation of the position of the deviant letter of cognate words (external and internal letters). Two experiments were conducted with Catalan-Spanish bilinguals (a masked priming lexical decision task and a two-alternative forced-choice task) and their respective monolingual controls. The results revealed a differential processing for the first letter in comparison to the other letters as well as modulations as a function of language cue, suggesting amendments to the input-coding scheme of the multilink model.

Motor processing modulates word comprehension.

We evaluated whether movement modulates the semantic processing of words. To this end, we used homograph words with two meanings, one associated with hand movements (e.g., 'abanico', 'fan' in Spanish) or foot movements ('bota', 'boot' in Spanish), and the other not associated with movement ('abanico', 'range' in Spanish; 'bota', 'wineskin' in Spanish). After the homograph, three words were presented, and participants were asked to choose the word related to one of the two homograph meanings. The words could be either related to the motor meaning of the homograph ('fan-heat'), to the non-motor meaning of the homograph ('range-possibility') or unrelated ('fan-phone'). The task was performed without movement (simple condition) or by performing hand (Experiment 1) and foot (Experiment 2) movements. Compared with the simple condition, the performance of movement oriented the preference towards the motor meaning of the homograph. This pattern of results confirms that movement modulates word comprehension.

Cognitive Control and Bilingualism: The Bilingual Advantage Through the Lens of Dimensional Overlap.

Past research shows that the bilingual experience may enhance cognitive executive function. In this experiment, we evaluated cognitive control in bilinguals relative to monolinguals by using a dimensional overlap model to predict performance in a task composed of Stroop and Simon stimuli. A group of 24 Spanish monolinguals and 24 bilinguals with differing first languages and all having Spanish as a second language (L2) did a picture naming task and a task composed of Stroop and Simon stimuli, where the effect of different overlap conditions (spatial/color) between stimuli and responses were examined. The tasks were performed in Spanish for both groups and performance was indexed with behavioral and electrophysiological measures. We hypothesized that the bilinguals' daily language practice in L2 reflected overlap conditions similar to the Simon task. Both naming a picture in L2 and the Simon task would involve conflict at the response level. L2 picture naming entails interference between two potential oral responses, to name in L2 vs. L1 (correct vs. incorrect responses, respectively). Similarly, incongruent stimuli in the Simon task produce interference because the irrelevant dimension (spatial location) overlap with an incorrect response. In contrast, the manual Stroop task involves a different type of conflict between two overlapping stimulus dimensions (the ink color and the color meaning). We predicted for these reasons a superior performance in Simon tasks over Stroop tasks for bilinguals, while monolinguals were expected to have a similar performance in both tasks. We also expected to see a correlation between the performance on the picture naming task and the Simon task in bilinguals. However, the behavioral results did not confirm these hypotheses. In fact, both groups had similar congruency effects as measured by reaction times and error rates, and there was no correlation between the picture naming and Simon task in bilinguals. Despite this, the electrophysiological data suggested a relationship between the picture naming task and the P300 congruency effect in bilinguals. Our findings provide insights into the neurocognitive bases of language and serve as a research avenue for language behaviors in bilinguals.

The processing of prices across numerical formats.

We evaluated whether the format in which prices are presented determines the processing of their magnitude. A price comparison task was used in which two-digit prices with Arabic digits, written number words and auditory number words were presented in the euro currency. Prices were number-monetary category (NMC) compatible (49 euros - 36 cents) when the number and monetary category of one price were larger than those of the other (49 > 36, euros > cents); or NMC incompatible (49 cents - 36 euros) when the number of one price was larger but the monetary category smaller than those of the other (49 > 36, cents < euros). In addition, there were unit-decade (UD) compatible prices when the decade and unit of one price were larger than those of the other (49 euros - 36 cents, 4 > 3, 9 > 6); and UD incompatible prices when the decade of one price was larger but the unit smaller than those of the other (46 euros - 39 cents, 4 > 3, 6 < 9). The results showed NMC compatibility effects in all numerical formats. However, the UD compatibility effect was not found in any numerical format. The results are discussed within the hybrid model of multisymbolic magnitude processing.

Competition and working memory in sentence reading: Evidence from Spanish.

We evaluated the validity, preference, and competition of 2 syntactic cues in Spanish (subject-verb agreement and animacy) and the role of working memory (WM) during cue competition in sentence reading. Spanish participants read noun-verb-noun sentences and performed an agent assignment task. Experiment 1 revealed that readers preferred as agent of the sentence (a) the noun that agreed with the verb and (b) the animate noun over the inanimate noun. The subject-verb agreement cue was preferred over animacy. Cue competition arose in reading: Longer reading times were observed for sentences in which subject-verb agreement and animacy guided toward different interpretations. Experiment 2 revealed that the use of syntactic cues depended on WM. High-WM-span readers made use of lexical-semantic information (animacy) and did not show the interference associated with cue competition. Low WM span readers preferred the favourite cue in Spanish (subject-verb agreement) and showed interference when cues competed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Simple additions: Dissociation between retrieval and counting with electrophysiological indexes.

There is current debate about the way adult individuals solve simple additions composed of one-digit operands. There are two opposing views. The first view assumes that people retrieve the result of additions from memory, whilst the second view states that individuals use automatized counting procedures. Our study aimed to dissociate between these two hypotheses. To this end, we analysed the type of problem effect when participants resolved simple additions by comparing additions with operands between 1 and 4 and control additions with at least one operand larger than 4. Brain-waves activity of a group of 30 adult individuals were recorded with 64 scalp electrodes mounted on an elastic cap, referenced against an electrode between Cz and CPz and re-referenced to an average reference offline. We considered two electrophysiological indexes, event-related potentials, ERPs, time-locked to the addition problems to distinguish between retrieval from memory and the use of procedures: A late positivity component (LP, 500-650 time window) over posterior regions associated to memory retrieval difficulty with higher LP positivity when participants resolve difficult vs. easy additions, and a negative component (N400, 250-450 ms time window) over fronto-central regions related to the use memory retrieval vs. procedures with more pronounced N400 amplitudes when the difficulty in the retrieval of semantic information increased. LP modulations were observed depending on the type of problem over posterior regions, P3 and Pz electrodes, whilst the N400 component was not affected. This pattern of results suggests that adult individuals use retrieval from memory to solve simple additions.

How do we process prices? Electrophysiological evidence of componential analysis.

The aim of this study was to evaluate if the processing of prices (e.g., 8 euro) involves separate analysis of the digit (8) and the monetary category (euro). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded when participants performed a price comparison task in which a pair of prices was presented and they selected the one with higher monetary value. There were compatible comparisons where the digit and the monetary category of one price were higher than those of the other price (e.g., 7 euro - 4 cent, 7 > 4 and euro > cent), and incompatible comparisons where the number of one price was larger but the monetary category smaller than those of the other price (e.g., 4 euro - 7 cent, 4 < 7 but euro > cent). Compatibility effect modulated ERPs in the 350-450 ms time window, with more negative amplitudes in incompatible trials relative to compatible trials. This pattern of results suggests that prices were processed in a componential manner, challenging the evidences of the holistic model. The results of this study agree with the general model framework for multi-symbol number comparison: The constituents of a multi-symbol magnitude are processed and compared to each other separately in a componential manner.

The way in which foreign words are learned determines their use in isolation and within sentences.

We compared 2 learning methods for the acquisition of vocabulary in a second language (L2). In addition, the use of the new L2 words was evaluated both in isolation and within sentences. In the semantic method, L2 words and pictures denoting their meanings were presented and participants learned by practicing a semantic categorization task (to indicate whether new words were exemplars of semantic categories). In the lexical methods, individuals received L1-L2 word pairs and they performed a letter-monitoring task (to indicate whether L1-L2 words contained a grapheme). After training, compared with the lexical learning group, the semantic learning group showed: (a) no cost between training sessions, (b) better performance in out-of-context tasks (e.g., picture naming), and (c) an efficient processing of L2 words in sentences. The pattern of outcomes shows the advantage of semantic learning for the acquisition and the use of L2 words in isolation and within sentences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Lexical and syntactic target language interactions in translation.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the possible interaction between syntactic and lexical properties of the target language (TL) in consecutive translation. To this end, participants read sentences in the source language (SL) to translate them into the TL (reading for translation) or to repeat them in the same language (reading for repetition). The cognate status of words at the beginning and at the end of sentences and the congruency in the syntactic structure of sentences in the SL and TL were manipulated. The results showed coactivation of the syntactic and lexical properties of the TL in the middle and final regions of the sentence. In addition, in the reading for translation, an interaction was observed between the cognate status and the syntactic congruency at the end of the sentence. The pattern of results suggests that the time course of syntactic and lexical activation in translation is interactive.

Do we access meaning when we name Arabic digits? Electrophysiological evidence.

In this study, we evaluated whether the naming of Arabic digits required access to semantic information. Participants named pictures and Arabic digits blocked by category or intermixed with exemplars of other categories while behavioural and electrophysiological measures were gathered. Pictures were named slower and Arabic digits faster in the blocked context relative to the mixed context. Around 350-450 ms after the presentation of pictures and Arabic digits, brain waves were more positive in anterior regions and more negative in posterior regions when the blocked context was compared with the mixed context. The pattern of electrophysiological results suggests that pictures and Arabic digits are both processed semantically and they are subject to repetition effects during the naming task.

The processing of price comparison is not holistic but componential.

In three experiments, we evaluate whether the processing of prices is holistic or componential. When participants receive two prices and they select the higher price, distance effects are found when the distances between the two prices are defined holistically but not when they are defined in terms of digits (Experiment 1). This result suggests that prices are processed holistically. However, we show that the holistic distance effect can be explained by the compatibility between the digits and the monetary category of prices (euro and cent). After controlling for the holistic distance, compatible trials (e.g., 8 euro-4 cent, 8 > 4, and euro > cent) are processed faster than incompatible trials (e.g., 8 cent-4 euro, 8 > 4 but cent < euro) with simultaneous and sequential presentation of prices (Experiment 2). Moreover, the compatibility effect is modulated by the ratio of intra monetary category comparisons (8 euro-6 euro) and inter monetary category comparisons (8 euro-4 cents) (Experiment 3). The existence of compatibility effects between the digits and the monetary category of prices suggests that cognitive processing of prices is not holistic but componential.

Autism: Hard to Switch from Details to the Whole.

It has long been proposed that individuals with autism exhibit a superior processing of details at the expense of an impaired global processing. This theory has received some empirical support, but results are mixed. In this research we have studied local and global processing in ASD and Typically Developing children, with an adaptation of the Navon task, designed to measure congruency effects between local and global stimuli and switching cost between local and global tasks. ASD children showed preserved global processing; however, compared to Typically Developing children, they exhibited more facilitation from congruent local stimuli when they performed the global task. In addition, children with ASD had more switching cost than Typically Developing children only when they switched from the local to the global task, reflecting a specific difficulty to disengage from local stimuli. Together, results suggest that ASD is characterized by a tendency to process local details, they benefit from the processing of local stimuli at the expense of increasing cost to disengage from local stimuli when global processing is needed. Thus, this work demonstrates experimentally the advantages and disadvantages of the increased local processing in children with ASD.

Things can change: Sentence processing in consecutive translation.

Syntactic cues help individuals to assign thematic roles (agent/patient) during sentence processing. In the present study, we examined whether the use of syntactic cues changed in bilinguals depending on the task they performed. Spanish (L1)/English (L2) bilinguals read sentences in Spanish either to produce them in the same language or to translate them in English. Three syntactic cues were evaluated: animacy (Experiment 1), subject-verb agreement (Experiment 2), and word order (Experiment 3). In Experiments 1 and 2, word order was stronger than animacy and subject-verb agreement when bilinguals read for translation. Moreover, when the same syntactic cue favoured a different agent for each language (word order in Experiment 3), the bilinguals performed as native speakers of Spanish in the within-language task, whereas they performed as native speakers of English in the translation task. Together, this research indicates that translation changes the way bilinguals use syntactic cues in sentence processing. (PsycINFO Database Record

Conflict resolution in two-digit number processing: evidence of an inhibitory mechanism.

We investigated the mechanism involved in conflict resolution when individuals processed two-digit numbers. Participants performed a comparison task in blocks of two trials. In the first trial, between-decade two-digit numbers were used in a compatible condition where the decade and the unit of one number were larger than those of the other number (i.e., 21-73) and an incompatible condition where the decade of one number was larger but the unit was smaller than those of the other number (i.e., 61-53). In the second trial, within-decade two-digit numbers were presented in a related condition where the numbers contained the units presented previously (i.e., 41-43) and an unrelated condition with units that did not appear before (i.e., 48-49). In the first trial, participants responded more slowly in incompatible trials relative to compatible trials. In the second trial, participants were slower in the related condition relative to unrelated trials only after incompatible trials. These results suggest that participants experienced conflict in the incompatible condition of first trial and that they inhibited irrelevant units to resolve conflict.