Mefloquine induces ER stress and apoptosis in BRAFi-resistant A375-BRAFV600E /NRASQ61K malignant melanoma cells targeting intracranial tumors in a bioluminescent murine model.

Molecularly targeted therapeutics have revolutionized the treatment of BRAFV600E -driven malignant melanoma, but the rapid development of resistance to BRAF kinase inhibitors (BRAFi) presents a significant obstacle. The use of clinical antimalarials for the investigational treatment of malignant melanoma has shown only moderate promise, attributed mostly to inhibition of lysosomal-autophagic adaptations of cancer cells, but identification of specific antimalarials displaying single-agent antimelanoma activity has remained elusive. Here, we have screened a focused library of clinically used artemisinin-combination therapeutic (ACT) antimalarials for the apoptotic elimination of cultured malignant melanoma cell lines, also examining feasibility of overcoming BRAFi-resistance comparing isogenic melanoma cells that differ only by NRAS mutational status (BRAFi-sensitive A375-BRAFV600E /NRASQ61 vs. BRAFi-resistant A375-BRAFV600E /NRASQ61K ). Among ACT antimalarials tested, mefloquine (MQ) was the only apoptogenic agent causing melanoma cell death at low micromolar concentrations. Comparative gene expression-array analysis (A375-BRAFV600E /NRASQ61 vs. A375-BRAFV600E /NRASQ61K ) revealed that MQ is a dual inducer of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and redox stress responses that precede MQ-induced loss of viability. ER-trackerTM DPX fluorescence imaging and electron microscopy indicated ER swelling, accompanied by rapid induction of ER stress signaling (phospho-eIF2α, XBP-1s, ATF4). Fluo-4 AM-fluorescence indicated the occurrence of cytosolic calcium overload observable within seconds of MQ exposure. In a bioluminescent murine model employing intracranial injection of A375-Luc2 (BRAFV600E /NRASQ61K ) cells, an oral MQ regimen efficiently antagonized brain tumor growth. Taken together, these data suggest that the clinical antimalarial MQ may be a valid candidate for drug repurposing aiming at chemotherapeutic elimination of malignant melanoma cells, even if metastasized to the brain and BRAFi-resistant.

Design and Synthesis of Brain Penetrant Glycopeptide Analogues of PACAP With Neuroprotective Potential for Traumatic Brain Injury and Parkinsonism.

There is an unmet clinical need for curative therapies to treat neurodegenerative disorders. Most mainstay treatments currently on the market only alleviate specific symptoms and do not reverse disease progression. The Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), an endogenous neuropeptide hormone, has been extensively studied as a potential regenerative therapeutic. PACAP is widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS) and exerts its neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects via the related Class B GPCRs PAC1, VPAC1, and VPAC2, at which the hormone shows roughly equal activity. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) also activates these receptors, and this close analogue of PACAP has also shown to promote neuronal survival in various animal models of acute and progressive neurodegenerative diseases. However, PACAP's poor pharmacokinetic profile (non-linear PK/PD), and more importantly its limited blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability has hampered development of this peptide as a therapeutic. We have demonstrated that glycosylation of PACAP and related peptides promotes penetration of the BBB and improves PK properties while retaining efficacy and potency in the low nanomolar range at its target receptors. Furthermore, judicious structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies revealed key motifs that can be modulated to afford compounds with diverse selectivity profiles. Most importantly, we have demonstrated that select PACAP glycopeptide analogues (2LS80Mel and 2LS98Lac) exert potent neuroprotective effects and anti-inflammatory activity in animal models of traumatic brain injury and in a mild-toxin lesion model of Parkinson's disease, highlighting glycosylation as a viable strategy for converting endogenous peptides into robust and efficacious drug candidates.

NRF2 Loss Accentuates Parkinsonian Pathology and Behavioral Dysfunction in Human α-Synuclein Overexpressing Mice.

Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2) is a central regulator of cellular stress responses and its transcriptional activation promotes multiple cellular defense and survival mechanisms. The loss of NRF2 has been shown to increase oxidative and proteotoxic stress, two key pathological features of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Moreover, compromised redox homeostasis and protein quality control can cause the accumulation of pathogenic proteins, including alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) which plays a key role in PD. However, despite this link, the precise mechanisms by which NRF2 may regulate PD pathology is not clear. In this study, we generated a humanized mouse model to study the importance of NRF2 in the context of α-Syn-driven neuropathology in PD. Specifically, we developed NRF2 knockout and wild-type mice that overexpress human α-Syn (hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- and hα-Syn+/Nrf2+/+ respectively) and tested changes in their behavior through nest building, challenging beam, and open field tests at three months of age. Cellular and molecular alterations in α-Syn, including phosphorylation and subsequent oligomerization, as well as changes in oxidative stress, inflammation, and autophagy were also assessed across multiple brain regions. It was observed that although monomeric α-Syn levels did not change, compared to their wild-type counterparts, hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice exhibited increased phosphorylation and oligomerization of α-Syn. This was associated with a loss of tyrosine hydroxylase expressing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, and more pronounced behavioral deficits reminiscent of early-stage PD, in the hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice. Furthermore, hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice showed significantly amplified oxidative stress, greater expression of inflammatory markers, and signs of increased autophagic burden, especially in the midbrain, striatum and cortical brain regions. These results support an important role for NRF2, early in PD progression. More broadly, it indicates NRF2 biology as fundamental to PD pathogenesis and suggests that targeting NRF2 activation may delay the onset and progression of PD.

Enhanced NRF2 expression mitigates the decline in neural stem cell function during aging.

Although it is known that aging affects neural stem progenitor cell (NSPC) biology in fundamental ways, the underlying dynamics of this process are not fully understood. Our previous work identified a specific critical period (CP) of decline in NSPC activity and function during middle age (13-15 months), and revealed the reduced expression of the redox-sensitive transcription factor, NRF2, as a key mediator of this process. Here, we investigated whether augmenting NRF2 expression could potentially mitigate the NSPC decline across the identified CP. NRF2 expression in subventricular zone (SVZ) NSPCs was upregulated via GFP tagged recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV-NRF2-eGFP), and its cellular and behavioral effects compared to animals that received control vectors (AAV-eGFP). The vectors were administered into the SVZs of aging rats, at time points either before or after the CP. Results indicate that animals that had received AAV-NRF2-eGFP, prior to the CP (11 months of age), exhibited substantially improved behavioral function (fine olfactory discrimination and motor tasks) in comparison to those receiving control viruses. Further analysis revealed that NSPC proliferation, self-renewal, neurogenesis, and migration to the olfactory bulb had significantly increased upon NRF2 upregulation. On the other hand, increasing NRF2 after the CP (at 20 months of age) produced no notable changes in NSPC activity at either cellular or behavioral levels. These results, for the first time, indicate NRF2 pathway modulation as a means to support NSPC function with age and highlight a critical time-dependency for activating NRF2 to enhance NSPC function.

An NRF2 Perspective on Stem Cells and Ageing.

Redox and metabolic mechanisms lie at the heart of stem cell survival and regenerative activity. NRF2 is a major transcriptional controller of cellular redox and metabolic homeostasis, which has also been implicated in ageing and lifespan regulation. However, NRF2's role in stem cells and their functioning with age is only just emerging. Here, focusing mainly on neural stem cells, which are core to adult brain plasticity and function, we review recent findings that identify NRF2 as a fundamental player in stem cell biology and ageing. We also discuss NRF2-based molecular programs that may govern stem cell state and function with age, and implications of this for age-related pathologies.

Redox regulation by NRF2 in aging and disease.

NRF2, a transcription factor that has been deemed the master regulator of cellular redox homeostasis, declines with age. NRF2 transcriptionally upregulates genes that combat oxidative stress; therefore, loss of NRF2 allows oxidative stress to go unmitigated and drive the aging phenotype. Oxidative stress is a common theme among the key features associated with the aging process, collectively referred to as the "Hallmarks of Aging", as it disrupts proteostasis, alters genomic stability, and leads to cell death. In this review, we outline the role that oxidative stress and the reduction of NRF2 play in each of the Hallmarks of Aging, including how they contribute to the onset of neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and other age-related pathologies.

Small-scale Propagation of Human iPSCs in Serum-free Conditions for Routine Immunocytochemical Characterization.

There is great interest in utilizing human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) for disease modeling and cell therapeutics due to their patient specificity and characteristic stemness. However, the pluripotency of iPSCs, which is essential to their functionality, must be confirmed before these cells can be used in such applications. While a rigorous characterization of iPSCs, through different cellular and functional assays is necessary to establish their pluripotency, routine assessment of pluripotency maintenance can be achieved more simply and effectively through immunocytochemical techniques. Here, we present a systematic protocol for culturing hiPSCs, in a scaled-down manner, to particularly facilitate the verification of their pluripotent state using immunocytochemistry. More specifically, this methodology encompasses an efficient and cost-effective means of growing iPSCs in serum-free conditions and plating them on small chamber slides or glass coverslips ideal for immunocytochemistry.

Parkinson's Disease Skin Fibroblasts Display Signature Alterations in Growth, Redox Homeostasis, Mitochondrial Function, and Autophagy.

The discovery of biomarkers for Parkinson's disease (PD) is challenging due to the heterogeneous nature of this disorder, and a poor correlation between the underlying pathology and the clinically expressed phenotype. An ideal biomarker would inform on PD-relevant pathological changes via an easily assayed biological characteristic, which reliably tracks clinical symptoms. Human dermal (skin) fibroblasts are accessible peripheral cells that constitute a patient-specific system, which potentially recapitulates the PD chronological and epigenetic aging history. Here, we compared primary skin fibroblasts obtained from individuals diagnosed with late-onset sporadic PD, and healthy age-matched controls. These fibroblasts were studied from fundamental viewpoints of growth and morphology, as well as redox, mitochondrial, and autophagic function. It was observed that fibroblasts from PD subjects had higher growth rates, and appeared distinctly different in terms of morphology and spatial organization in culture, compared to control cells. It was also found that the PD fibroblasts exhibited significantly compromised mitochondrial structure and function when assessed via morphological and oxidative phosphorylation assays. Additionally, a striking increase in baseline macroautophagy levels was seen in cells from PD subjects. Exposure of the skin fibroblasts to physiologically relevant stress, specifically ultraviolet irradiation (UVA), further exaggerated the autophagic dysfunction in the PD cells. Moreover, the PD fibroblasts accumulated higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) coupled with lower cell viability upon UVA treatment. In essence, these studies highlight primary skin fibroblasts as a patient-relevant model that captures fundamental PD molecular mechanisms, and supports their potential utility to develop diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for the disease.

Effects of the iron oxide nanoparticle Molday ION Rhodamine B on the viability and regenerative function of neural stem cells: relevance to clinical translation.

An essential component of developing successful neural stem cell (NSC)-based therapies involves the establishment of methodologies to noninvasively monitor grafted NSCs within brain tissues in real time. In this context, ex vivo labeling with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) particles has been shown to enable efficient tracking of transplanted NSCs via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, whether and how USPIO labeling affects the intrinsic biology of NSCs is not thoroughly understood, and remains an active area of investigation. Here, we perform a comprehensive examination of rat NSC survival and regenerative function upon labeling with the USPIO, Molday ION Rhodamine B (MIRB), which allows for dual magnetic resonance and optical imaging. After optimization of labeling efficiency, two specific doses of MIRB (20 and 50 µg/mL) were chosen and were followed for the rest of the study. We observed that both MIRB doses supported the robust detection of NSCs, over an extended period of time in vitro and in vivo after transplantation into the striata of host rats, using MRI and post hoc fluorescence imaging. Both in culture and after neural transplantation, the higher 50 µg/mL MIRB dose significantly reduced the survival, proliferation, and differentiation rate of the NSCs. Interestingly, although the lower 20 µg/mL MIRB labeling did not produce overtly negative effects, it increased the proliferation and glial differentiation of the NSCs. Additionally, application of this dose also changed the morphological characteristics of neurons and glia produced after NSC differentiation. Importantly, the transplantation of NSCs labeled with either of the two MIRB doses upregulated the immune response in recipient animals. In particular, in animals receiving the 50 µg/mL MIRB-labeled NSCs, this immune response consisted of an increased number of CD68(+)-activated microglia, which appeared to have phagocytosed MIRB particles and cells contributing to an exaggerated MRI signal dropout in the animals. Overall, these results indicate that although USPIO particles, such as MIRB, may have advantageous labeling and magnetic resonance-sensitive features for NSC tracking, a further examination of their effects might be necessary before they can be used in clinical scenarios of cell-based transplantation.

Reduced Nrf2 expression mediates the decline in neural stem cell function during a critical middle-age period.

Although it is known that the regenerative function of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) declines with age, causal mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are not understood. Here, we systematically analyze subventricular zone (SVZ) NSPCs, in various groups of rats across the aging spectrum, using in vitro and in vivo histological and behavioral techniques. These studies indicate that although NSPC function continuously declines with advancing age, there is a critical time period during middle age (13-15 months) when a striking reduction in NSPC survival and regeneration (proliferation and neuronal differentiation) occurs. The studies also indicate that this specific temporal pattern of NSPC deterioration is functionally relevant at a behavioral level and correlates with the decreasing expression of the redox-sensitive transcription factor, Nrf2, in the NSPCs. When Nrf2 expression was suppressed in 'young' NSPCs, using short interfering RNAs, the survival and regeneration of the NSPCs was significantly compromised and mirrored 'old' NSPCs. Conversely, Nrf2 overexpression in 'old' NSPCs rendered them similar to 'young' NSPCs, and they showed increased survival and regeneration. Furthermore, examination of newborn Nrf2 knockout (Nrf2 -/-) mice revealed a lower number of SVZ NSPCs in these animals, when compared to wild-type controls. In addition, the proliferative and neurogenic potential of the NSPCs was also compromised in the Nrf2-/- mice. These results identify a novel regulatory role for Nrf2 in NSPC function during aging and have important implications for developing NSPC-based strategies to support healthy aging and to treat age-related neurodegenerative disorders.

Redox-based regulation of neural stem cell function and Nrf2.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) play vital roles in the development and maintenance of brain tissues throughout life. They can also potentially act as powerful sources of regeneration and repair during pathology to replace degenerating cells and counteract deleterious changes in the tissue microenvironment. However, both aging and neurodegeneration involve an up-regulation of processes, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, somatic mutations, and reduction in growth factors in neural tissues, which threaten the robust functioning of NSCs. Nevertheless, recent evidence also indicates that NSCs may possess the intrinsic capability to cope with such stressors in their microenvironment. Whereas the mechanisms governing the responses of NSCs to stress are diverse, a common theme that is emerging suggests that underlying changes in intracellular redox status are crucial. Here we discuss such redox-based regulation of NSCs, particularly in relation to nuclear erythroid factor 2-like 2 (Nrf2), which is a key cellular stress resistance factor, and its implications for successfully harnessing NSC therapeutic potential towards developing cell-based therapeutics for nervous system disorders.

Sonic Hedgehog Controls the Phenotypic Fate and Therapeutic Efficacy of Grafted Neural Precursor Cells in a Model of Nigrostriatal Neurodegeneration.

The expression of soluble growth and survival promoting factors by neural precursor cells (NPCs) is suggested to be a prominent mechanism underlying the protective and regenerative effects of these cells after transplantation. Nevertheless, how and to what extent specific NPC-expressed factors contribute to therapeutic effects is not well understood. Using RNA silencing, the current study investigated the roles of two donor NPC molecules, namely glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and sonic hedgehog (SHH), in the protection of substantia nigra dopamine neurons in rats treated with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Analyses indicate that as opposed to the knock-down of GDNF, SHH inhibition caused a profound decline in nigrostriatal neuroprotection. Further, SHH silencing also curbed endogenous neurogenesis and the migration of host brdU+/dcx+ neural precursors into the striatum, which was present in the animals receiving control or GDNF silenced NPCs. A change in graft phenotype, mainly reflected by a reduced proportion of undifferentiated nestin+ cells, as well as a significantly greater host microglial activity, suggested an important role for these processes in the attenuation of neuroprotection and neurogenesis upon SHH silencing. Overall these studies reveal core mechanisms fundamental to grafted NPC-based therapeutic effects, and delineate the particular contributions of two graft-expressed molecules, SHH and GDNF, in mediating midbrain dopamine neuron protection, and host plasticity after NPC transplantation.

Systemic human CD34(+) cells populate the brain and activate host mechanisms to counteract nigrostriatal degeneration.

AIM: Here we investigated the neuroprotective potential of systemic CD34(+) human cord blood cells (hCBCs) in a 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. METHODS: Purified CD34(+) hCBCs were intravenously administered to rats subjected to 6-hydroxydopamine 24 h earlier, and behavioral and immunohistological analysis performed. RESULTS: CD34(+) hCBC administration significantly prevented host nigrostriatal degeneration inducing behavioral recovery in treated rats. Although donor hCBCs did not differentiate into neural phenotypes, they stimulated the production of new neuroblasts and angiogenesis, and reduced gliosis in recipient animals. Importantly, surviving donor hCBCs were identified, and their tissue distribution pattern correlated with the observed therapeutic effects. CONCLUSION: Peripherally applied CD34(+) hCBCs can migrate into brain tissues and elicit host-based protective mechanisms to support the survival of midbrain dopamine neurons.

Tricyclic antidepressant treatment evokes regional changes in neurotrophic factors over time within the intact and degenerating nigrostriatal system.

In addition to alleviating depression, trophic responses produced by antidepressants may regulate neural plasticity in the diseased brain, which not only provides symptomatic benefit but also potentially slows the rate of disease progression in Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent in vitro and in vivo data provide evidence that neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) may be key mediators of the therapeutic response to antidepressants. As such, we conducted a cross-sectional time-course study to determine whether antidepressant-mediated changes in neurotrophic factors occur in relevant brain regions in response to amitriptyline (AMI) treatment before and after intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA). Adult male Wistar rats were divided into seven cohorts and given daily injections (i.p.) of AMI (5mg/kg) or saline throughout the duration of the study. In parallel, various cohorts of intact or parkinsonian animals were sacrificed at specific time points to determine the impact of AMI treatment on trophic factor levels in the intact and degenerating nigrostriatal system. The left and right hemispheres of the substantia nigra, striatum, frontal cortex, piriform cortex, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex were dissected, and BDNF and GDNF levels were measured with ELISA. Results show that chronic AMI treatment elicits effects in multiple brain regions and differentially regulates levels of BDNF and GDNF depending on the region. Additionally, AMI halts the progressive degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons elicited by an intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesion. Taken together, these results suggest that AMI treatment elicits significant trophic changes important to DA neuron survival within both the intact and degenerating nigrostriatal system.

Chronic amitriptyline treatment attenuates nigrostriatal degeneration and significantly alters trophic support in a rat model of parkinsonism.

In addition to alleviating depression, long-term adaptive changes induced by antidepressants may regulate neural plasticity in the diseased brain, providing symptomatic and disease-modifying effects in Parkinson's disease. The present study investigated whether chronic treatment with a frequently prescribed tricyclic antidepressant was neuroprotective in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat model of parkinsonism. In lesioned animals, chronic amitriptyline (AMI; 5 mg/kg) treatment resulted in a significant sparing of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (THir) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) compared with saline treatment. Additionally, striatal fibers were preserved and functional motor deficits were attenuated. Although 6-OHDA lesions did not induce anhedonia in our model, the dose of AMI utilized had antidepressant activity as demonstrated by reduced immobility. Recent in vitro and in vivo data provide evidence that trophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) may be key mediators of the therapeutic response to antidepressants. Therefore, we investigated whether AMI mediates changes in these specific trophic factors in the intact and degenerating nigrostriatal system. Chronic AMI treatment mediates an increase in nigral BDNF both before and during ongoing degeneration, suggesting it may contribute to neuroprotection observed in vivo. However, over time, AMI reduced BDNF levels in the striatum, indicating tricyclic therapy differentially regulates trophic factors within the nigrostriatal system. Combined, these results suggest that AMI treatment attenuates dopamine neuron loss and elicits significant trophic changes relevant to dopamine neuron survival.

Tricyclic antidepressants delay the need for dopaminergic therapy in early Parkinson's disease.

This study examined whether antidepressants delay the need for dopaminergic therapy or change the degree of motor impairment and disability in a population of early Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Preclinical studies have indicated that antidepressants modulate signaling pathways involved in cell survival and plasticity, suggesting they may serve to both treat PD-associated depression and slow disease progression. A patient-level meta-analysis included 2064 patients from the treatment and placebo arms of the following trials: FS1, FS-TOO, ELLDOPA, QE2, TEMPO, and PRECEPT. Depression severity was determined at baseline, and antidepressant use was reported in a medication log each visit. Kaplan-Meier curves and time-dependent Cox proportional hazards models determined associations between depression severity and antidepressant use with the primary outcome, time to initiation of dopaminergic therapy. ANCOVAs determined associations with the secondary outcome, degree of motor impairment and disability, reported as annualized change in UPDRS scores from baseline to final visit. When controlling for baseline depression, the initiation of dopaminergic therapy was delayed for subjects taking tricyclic antidepressants compared with those not taking antidepressants. No significant differences were found in UPDRS scores for subjects taking antidepressants compared with those not taking antidepressants. Tricyclic antidepressants are associated with a delay in reaching the end point of need to start dopaminergic therapy. The lack of change in overall UPDRS scores suggests the delay was not attributable to symptomatic effects.

Endogenous neural precursors influence grafted neural stem cells and contribute to neuroprotection in the parkinsonian rat.

Neuroprotective and neurorescue effects after neural stem/precursor cell (NPC) transplantation have been reported, but the mechanisms underlying such phenomena are not well understood. Our recent findings in a rat Parkinson's disease (PD) model indicate that transplantation of NPCs before a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) insult can result in nigrostriatal protection which is associated with endogenous NPC proliferation, migration and neurogenesis. Here, we sought to determine whether the observed endogenous NPC response (i) contributes to transplanted NPC-mediated neuroprotection; and/or (ii) affects graft phenotype and function. Host Fischer 344 rats were administered the antimitotic agent cytosine-ß-d-arabinofuranoside (Ara-C) to eliminate actively proliferating endogenous neural precursors before being transplanted with NPCs and treated with 6-OHDA to induce nigrostriatal degeneration. Behavioral and histological analyses demonstrate that the neuroprotective response observed in NPC transplanted animals which had not received Ara-C was significantly attenuated in animals which did receive pre-transplant Ara-C. Also, while grafts in Ara-C-treated animals showed no decrease in cell number, they exhibited significantly reduced expression of the neural stem cell regulators nestin and sonic hedgehog. In addition, inhibition of the endogenous NPC response resulted in an exaggerated host glial reaction. Overall, the study establishes for the first time that endogenous NPCs contribute to transplanted NPC-mediated therapeutic effects by affecting both grafted and mature host cells in unique ways. Thus, both endogenous and transplanted NPCs are important in creating an environment suitable for neural protection and rescue, and harnessing their synergistic interaction may lead to the optimization of cell-based therapies for PD.

Striatal pleiotrophin overexpression provides functional and morphological neuroprotection in the 6-hydroxydopamine model.

Neurotrophic factors are integrally involved in the development of the nigrostriatal system and in combination with gene therapy, possess great therapeutic potential for Parkinson's disease (PD). Pleiotrophin (PTN) is involved in the development, maintenance, and repair of the nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) system. The present study examined the ability of striatal PTN overexpression, delivered via psueudotyped recombinant adeno-associated virus type 2/1 (rAAV2/1), to provide neuroprotection and functional restoration from 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Striatal PTN overexpression led to significant neuroprotection of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive (THir) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and THir neurite density in the striatum, with long-term PTN overexpression producing recovery from 6-OHDA-induced deficits in contralateral forelimb use. Transduced striatal PTN levels were increased threefold compared to adult striatal PTN expression and approximated peak endogenous developmental levels (P1). rAAV2/1 vector exclusively transduced neurons within the striatum and SNpc with approximately half the total striatal volume routinely transduced using our injection parameters. Our results indicate that striatal PTN overexpression can provide neuroprotection for the 6-OHDA lesioned nigrostriatal system based upon morphological and functional measures and that striatal PTN levels similar in magnitude to those expressed in the striatum during development are sufficient to provide neuroprotection from Parkinsonian insult.