Relating transcription, executive functions and text quality in Grades 2-3: A cross-lagged panel analysis.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that children's writing is dependent on transcription and executive functions. However, there is a need for more research examining the relationships among those variables in primary school children, given that most existing studies are cross-sectional and assess transcription and executive functions separately, and there are scarce and mixed longitudinal findings. AIMS: This study used a cross-lagged panel model to explore the relationships among transcription skills, executive functions and text quality from Grade 2 to Grade 3. SAMPLE: The sample included 353 Portuguese children (195 boys, 155 girls) in Grade 2, who were reassessed in Grade 3. METHODS: Children were assessed on transcription, executive functions and writing tasks at two time points. RESULTS: Transcription skills and executive functions in Grade 2 positively predicted the same variables in Grade 3. At Grade 2, transcription skills were associated with executive functions and text quality. At Grade 3, we only found an association between executive functions and text quality. Finally, text quality in Grade 2 predicted transcription skills in Grade 3, but both transcription and executive functions in Grade 2 did not predict text quality in Grade 3. CONCLUSIONS: Transcription skills and executive functions seem to be stable over time, but previous performance on these skills does not seem to predict later text quality. Overall, these findings do put into question the direction of the typically assumed relationships, especially between transcription and text quality. Findings also provide information that can guide the development of instructional programmes in primary school.

A Pilot Study Testing the Effectiveness of a Mindfulness-Based Program for Portuguese School Children.

Objectives: Research into the effectiveness of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) in school settings has grown substantially. However, studies in the field are still scarce, present methodological limitations, and fail to examine how children's characteristics influence MBPs' effects. The twofold aim of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of an MBP on children's attention and emotional regulation, writing performance, and school grades, and to evaluate the moderating role of baseline scores, age, gender, and socioeconomic status. Methods: Fifty-seven third graders received the MBP (n = 28) or a health-based program (n = 29), which is the active control group, for 8 weeks. In each week, both programs were composed of two 30-min sessions delivered by psychologists and three 5-min sessions delivered by teachers. Before and after the implementation of the programs, we assessed teacher-rated children's attention and emotional regulation, performance-based attention networks (alerting, orienting, and conflict monitoring), writing performance (handwriting fluency, spelling, and text quality), and school grades in Portuguese, Mathematics, and Social Studies. Results: Compared to the control group, after the program, the mindfulness group displayed higher teacher-rated attention and emotional regulation, as well as better Portuguese, Mathematics, and Social Studies grades. Emotional regulation and alerting baseline scores as well as age were found to moderate the MBP's effects. Conclusions: These findings provide preliminary evidence on the effectiveness of a MBP on children's behavior and school grades. This means that students may benefit from the integration of mindfulness practices into the educational setting as a complement to the school curriculum.

Validation of the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences (CHIME) in Portuguese Children.

Objectives: Despite the increasing interest in mindfulness, there are few multifaceted mindfulness measures for children, mainly in Portuguese. Thus, this study developed the Portuguese version of the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences (CHIME). Because this scale was initially created for adolescents, we also aimed to adapt it to children. Methods: After translating the original CHIME to Portuguese and adapting the wording for children, the instrument was administered to 223 9-10-year-olds, along with self-report measures of affect and quality of life, teacher-rated measures of inhibition, inattention, and emotional lability, and a performance-based attentional measure. We examined CHIME's factorial validity, inspected facets' reliability, and tested convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Results: Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) supported a 7-factor structure of the scale, after removing the accepting and non-judgmental attitude facet. Factor loadings (> .34) and reliability indices (> .54) were acceptable, though the average variance extracted was less than desirable. Correlations with external correlates provided support to CHIME's convergent and divergent validity (rs range .13-.55, ps < .05). Finally, evidence of predictive validity was found with a regression analysis showing that external awareness (b = - .16) and openness to experience (b = - .17) predicted academic achievement. Conclusions: This study provided preliminary validity and reliability evidence on the Portuguese CHIME. This instrument can provide relevant insights about the mindfulness facets and offer useful indications for the development of evidence-based interventions in childhood.

Exploring the Effects of Meditation Techniques Used by Mindfulness-Based Programs on the Cognitive, Social-Emotional, and Academic Skills of Children: A Systematic Review.

There is evidence for the positive impact of mindfulness in children. However, little is known about the techniques through which mindfulness practice results in differential outcomes. Therefore, this study intended to systematically review the available evidence about the efficacy of meditation techniques used by mindfulness-based programs on cognitive, socio-emotional, and academic skills of children from 6 to 12 years of age. The review was registered on the PROSPERO database, and the literature search was conducted according to PICO criteria and PRISMA guidelines. The EBSCO databases were searched, and 29 studies were eligible: nine randomized controlled trials and 20 quasi-experimental studies. All the included randomized controlled trials were rated as having a high risk of bias. Overall, the evidence for mindfulness techniques improving cognitive and socio-emotional skills was reasonably strong. Specifically, for cognitive skills, results showed that all the interventions used "body-centered meditations" and "mindful observations." Regarding socio-emotional skills, although all the studies applied "body-centered meditations" and "mindful observations," "affect-centered meditations" were also frequent. For academic skills, just one quasi-experimental trial found improvements, thus making it difficult to draw conclusions. Further research is crucial to evaluate the unique effects of different meditation techniques on the cognitive, social-emotional, and academic skills of children. Systematic Review Registration: Identifier: RD42019126767.

Promoting Third Graders' Executive Functions and Literacy: A Pilot Study Examining the Benefits of Mindfulness vs. Relaxation Training.

Research suggested that developing mindfulness skills in children improves proximal outcomes, such as attention and executive functions, as well as distal outcomes, such as academic achievement. Despite empirical evidence supporting this claim, research on the benefits of mindfulness training in child populations is scarce, with some mixed findings in the field. Here, we aimed to fill in this gap, by examining the effects of a mindfulness training on third graders' proximal and distal outcomes, namely, attention and executive functions (viz., inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) as well as literacy-related achievement (viz., handwriting fluency, text quality, Portuguese grades). These outcomes were measured with behavioral tasks and teacher ratings. Sixty-six Portuguese children were randomly allocated to an experimental group receiving mindfulness training (n = 29) or an active control group receiving relaxation training (n = 37). Both training programs were implemented by psychologists in two 30-min weekly sessions for 8 weeks. All students were assessed before and after the interventions. Three main findings are noteworthy: (a) mindfulness training enhanced teacher-rated cognitive flexibility and a performance-based composite score of executive functions among children with higher pretest scores; (b) relaxation training improved performance-based cognitive flexibility and the composite score of executive functions among children with lower pretest scores; (c) children receiving mindfulness training had higher handwriting fluency and better grades in Portuguese than those receiving relaxation training. These findings provide preliminary evidence on the benefits of mindfulness training in educational settings and highlight the moderating role of baseline performance on those benefits.

Spelling Performance of Portuguese Children: Comparison Between Grade Level, Misspelling Type, and Assessment Task.

There is consensus among researchers that misspellings are something to avoid. However, misspellings also convey relevant information for researchers and educators. The present study is a first effort toward the analysis of misspellings produced by Portuguese children. Specifically, we aimed to examine the association between misspellings in dictation and composing tasks; compare misspellings across grade, type, and task; and test the contribution of different misspellings produced in dictation and in composition to text quality. For that, 933 Portuguese pupils in Grade 2 (n = 297), Grade 4 (n = 302), and Grade 6 (n = 334) performed a spelling-to-dictation task and wrote an opinion essay. Misspellings were categorized into phonetically inaccurate, phonetically accurate, and stress mark errors. Results showed correlations between the same type of misspellings across tasks for phonetically inaccurate errors in Grades 2 and 4, and phonetically accurate errors in Grade 2. Moreover, pupils produced more misspellings in dictation than composing tasks, and there was a progressive decrease in phonetically inaccurate and phonetically accurate misspellings across schooling, though stress mark errors were more frequent in Grade 4 than in other grades. Finally, spelling errors predicted text quality, particularly in younger children. Overall, these findings are aligned with extant results on spelling development and support current voices claiming for fine-grained analyses of misspellings. As they may vary across grade and task, and impact text quality differently, a detailed approach to spelling errors can provide valuable information on the development of this skill.

Executive functions predict literacy and mathematics achievements: The unique contribution of cognitive flexibility in grades 2, 4, and 6.

Research has shown that cognitive flexibility plays a critical role in students' learning and academic achievement. However, the unique contribution of cognitive flexibility to academic achievement across schooling is not fully understood. Thus, this study tested whether cognitive flexibility explained a significant amount of variance in academic achievement (i.e., literacy and mathematics outcomes) across Grades 2, 4, and 6, above and beyond fluid intelligence, inhibitory control, working memory, attention, and planning. The sample included 243 second graders, 284 fourth graders, and 203 sixth graders. For Grades 4 and 6, we found that better performance on the flexibility score was associated with better academic outcomes after controlling for fluid intelligence, attention, inhibitory control, working memory, and planning. This effect was not observed for Grade 2. Our findings showed that cognitive flexibility is a key component for school achievement, particularly for older students.

Reasons to Write in Grade 6 and Their Association With Writing Quality.

Writing is a particularly complex and demanding task that needs to be mastered to assure students' success at school. In the last decades, the scientific community has been unanimous about the involvement of cognitive and motivational processes in the learning of writing. However, little is still known about some motivation-related processes, such as the reasons why students write. Therefore, this study analyzed the role of motivation in writing in developing writers, by examining the motives to write of 321 sixth graders. We used the Writing Motivation Questionnaire, which is a new instrument tapping the following motivations for writing: curiosity, involvement, grades, competition, social recognition, emotional regulation, and relief from boredom. Findings confirmed the multidimensional nature of motivations to write and supported the validity and reliability of the instrument. Also, results revealed that the strongest motives to write were grades and curiosity, and that curiosity and social recognition were significant predictors of writing quality, above and beyond attitudes and self-efficacy. Together these findings confirm the key role of motivation in writing and provide validity evidence of the Writing Motivation Questionnaire. This seems a useful tool to better understand the motivational processes involved in learning to write. However, despite the increasing research investment in this area, it is still important to carry out further studies that may contribute to the enrichment of the field of writing motivation.