Genetic correlation between multiple myeloma and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia provides evidence for shared aetiology.

The clustering of different types of B-cell malignancies in families raises the possibility of shared aetiology. To examine this, we performed cross-trait linkage disequilibrium (LD)-score regression of multiple myeloma (MM) and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) genome-wide association study (GWAS) data sets, totalling 11,734 cases and 29,468 controls. A significant genetic correlation between these two B-cell malignancies was shown (Rg = 0.4, P = 0.0046). Furthermore, four of the 45 known CLL risk loci were shown to associate with MM risk and five of the 23 known MM risk loci associate with CLL risk. By integrating eQTL, Hi-C and ChIP-seq data, we show that these pleiotropic risk loci are enriched for B-cell regulatory elements and implicate B-cell developmental genes. These data identify shared biological pathways influencing the development of CLL and, MM and further our understanding of the aetiological basis of these B-cell malignancies.

Genome-wide association analysis implicates dysregulation of immunity genes in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

Several chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) susceptibility loci have been reported; however, much of the heritable risk remains unidentified. Here we perform a meta-analysis of six genome-wide association studies, imputed using a merged reference panel of 1,000 Genomes and UK10K data, totalling 6,200 cases and 17,598 controls after replication. We identify nine risk loci at 1p36.11 (rs34676223, P=5.04 × 10-13), 1q42.13 (rs41271473, P=1.06 × 10-10), 4q24 (rs71597109, P=1.37 × 10-10), 4q35.1 (rs57214277, P=3.69 × 10-8), 6p21.31 (rs3800461, P=1.97 × 10-8), 11q23.2 (rs61904987, P=2.64 × 10-11), 18q21.1 (rs1036935, P=3.27 × 10-8), 19p13.3 (rs7254272, P=4.67 × 10-8) and 22q13.33 (rs140522, P=2.70 × 10-9). These new and established risk loci map to areas of active chromatin and show an over-representation of transcription factor binding for the key determinants of B-cell development and immune response.

Posttranscriptional Upregulation of p53 by Reactive Oxygen Species in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells multiply and become more resistant to immunochemotherapy in "proliferation centers" within tissues, whereas apoptosis occurs in the periphery. Various models recapitulate these microenvironments in vitro, such as stimulation with CD154 and IL4. Using this system, we observed a 30- to 40-fold induction of wild-type p53 protein in 50 distinct human CLL specimens tested, without the induction of either cell-cycle arrest or apoptosis. In contrast, the mRNA levels for p53 did not increase, indicating that its elevation occurred posttranscriptionally. Mechanistic investigations revealed that under the conditions studied, p53 was phosphorylated on residues associated with p53 activation and increased half-life. However, p53 protein induced in this manner could transcriptionally activate only a subset of target genes. The addition of a DNA-damaging agent further upregulated p53 protein levels, which led to apoptosis. p53 induction relied on the increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species observed after CD154 and IL4 stimulation. We propose that chronic oxidative stress is a characteristic of the microenvironment in B-cell "proliferation centers" in CLL that are capable of elevating the basal expression of p53, but to levels below the threshold needed to induce arrest or apoptosis. Our findings suggest that reactivation of the full transcriptional activities of p53 in proliferating CLL cells may offer a possible therapeutic strategy. Cancer Res; 76(21); 6311-9. ©2016 AACR.

HHV-8-unrelated primary effusion-like lymphoma associated with clonal loss of inherited chromosomally-integrated human herpesvirus-6A from the telomere of chromosome 19q.

Primary effusion lymphomas (PEL) are associated with human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) and usually occur in immunocompromised individuals. However, there are numerous reports of HHV-8-unrelated PEL-like lymphomas with unknown aetiology. Here we characterize an HHV-8-unrelated PEL-like lymphoma in an elderly woman who was negative for human immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2, and hepatitis B and C. The woman was, however, a carrier of an inherited-chromosomally-integrated human herpesvirus-6A (iciHHV-6A) genome in one 19q telomere. The iciHHV-6A genome was complete in blood DNA, encoding a full set of protein-coding genes. Interestingly, the entire iciHHV-6A genome was absent from the HHV-8-unrelated-PEL-like lymphoma cells despite retention of both copies of chromosome 19. The somatic loss of the 19q-iciHHV-6A genome occurred very early during lymphoma development and we propose it occurred via telomere-loop formation and excision to release a circular viral genome that was subsequently lost. Whether release of the HHV-6A genome from the telomere contributed to lymphomagenesis, or was coincidental, remains unclear but this event may have deregulated the expression of HHV-6A or 19q genes or else disrupted telomere function. To establish the frequency and importance of iciHHV-6 loss from telomeres, the HHV-6 copy number should be assessed in tumours that arise in iciHHV-6 carriers.

MDM2 promotor polymorphism and disease characteristics in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: results of an individual patient data-based meta-analysis.

A number of single nucleotide polymorphisms have been associated with disease predisposition in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the MDM2 promotor region, MDM2SNP309, was shown to soothe the p53 pathway. In the current study, we aimed to clarify the effect of the MDM2SNP309 on chronic lymphocytic leukemia characteristics and outcome. We performed a meta-analysis of data from 2598 individual patients from 10 different cohorts. Patients' data and genetic analysis for MDM2SNP309 genotype, immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region mutation status and fluorescence in situ hybridization results were collected. There were no differences in overall survival based on the polymorphism (log rank test, stratified by study cohort; P=0.76; GG genotype: cohort-adjusted median overall survival of 151 months; TG: 153 months; TT: 149 months). In a multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression analysis, advanced age, male sex and unmutated immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region genes were associated with inferior survival, but not the MDM2 genotype. The MDM2SNP309 is unlikely to influence disease characteristics and prognosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Studies investigating the impact of individual single nucleotide polymorphisms on prognosis are often controversial. This may be due to selection bias and small sample size. A meta-analysis based on individual patient data provides a reasonable strategy for prognostic factor analyses in the case of small individual studies. Individual patient data-based meta-analysis can, therefore, be a powerful tool to assess genetic risk factors in the absence of large studies.

Cell surface phenotype profiles distinguish stable and progressive chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is clinically heterogeneous. While some patients have indolent disease for many years, 20-30% will progress and ultimately die of their disease. CLL may be classified by the Rai or Binet staging system, mutational status of the immunoglobulin variable heavy-chain gene (IGVH), ZAP-70 overexpression, cytogenetic abnormalities (13q-, + 12, 11q-, 17p-) and expression of several cell surface antigens (CD38, CD49d) that correlate with risk of disease progression. However, none of these markers identify all cases of CLL at risk. In a recent review, we summarized those CD antigens known to correlate with the prognosis of CLL. The present study has identified surface profiles of CD antigens that distinguish clinically progressive CLL from slow-progressive and stable CLL. Using an extended DotScan(™) CLL antibody microarray (Version 3; 182 CD antibodies), and with refined analysis of purified CD19 + B-cells, the following 27 CD antigens were differentially abundant for progressive CLL: CD11a, CD11b, CD11c, CD18, CD19, CD20 (two epitopes), CD21, CD22, CD23, CD24, CD25, CD38, CD40, CD43, CD45, CD45RA, CD52, CD69, CD81, CD84, CD98, CD102, CD148, CD180, CD196 and CD270. The extensive surface profiles obtained provide disease signatures with an accuracy of 79.2%, a sensitivity of 83.9% and a specificity of 72.5% that could provide the basis for a rapid test to triage patients with CLL according to probability of clinical progression and potential earlier requirement for treatment.

A genome-wide association study identifies multiple susceptibility loci for chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) have shown that common genetic variation contributes to the heritable risk of CLL. To identify additional CLL susceptibility loci, we conducted a GWAS and performed a meta-analysis with a published GWAS totaling 1,739 individuals with CLL (cases) and 5,199 controls with validation in an additional 1,144 cases and 3,151 controls. A combined analysis identified new susceptibility loci mapping to 3q26.2 (rs10936599, P = 1.74 × 10(-9)), 4q26 (rs6858698, P = 3.07 × 10(-9)), 6q25.2 (IPCEF1, rs2236256, P = 1.50 × 10(-10)) and 7q31.33 (POT1, rs17246404, P = 3.40 × 10(-8)). Additionally, we identified a promising association at 5p15.33 (CLPTM1L, rs31490, P = 1.72 × 10(-7)) and validated recently reported putative associations at 5p15.33 (TERT, rs10069690, P = 1.12 × 10(-10)) and 8q22.3 (rs2511714, P = 2.90 × 10(-9)). These findings provide further insights into the genetic and biological basis of inherited genetic susceptibility to CLL.

Prdm6 is essential for cardiovascular development in vivo.

Members of the PRDM protein family have been shown to play important roles during embryonic development. Previous in vitro and in situ analyses indicated a function of Prdm6 in cells of the vascular system. To reveal physiological functions of Prdm6, we generated conditional Prdm6-deficient mice. Complete deletion of Prdm6 results in embryonic lethality due to cardiovascular defects associated with aberrations in vascular patterning. However, smooth muscle cells could be regularly differentiated from Prdm6-deficient embryonic stem cells and vascular smooth muscle cells were present and proliferated normally in Prdm6-deficient embryos. Conditional deletion of Prdm6 in the smooth muscle cell lineage using a SM22-Cre driver line resulted in perinatal lethality due to hemorrhage in the lungs. We thus identified Prdm6 as a factor that is essential for the physiological control of cardiovascular development.

Reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial sensitivity to oxidative stress determine induction of cancer cell death by p21.

p21(Waf1/Cip1/Sdi1) is a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor that mediates cell cycle arrest. Prolonged p21 up-regulation induces a senescent phenotype in normal and cancer cells, accompanied by an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, it has been shown recently that p21 expression can also lead to cell death in certain models. The mechanisms involved in this process are not fully understood. Here, we describe an induction of apoptosis by p21 in sarcoma cell lines that is p53-independent and can be ameliorated with antioxidants. Similar levels of p21 and ROS caused senescence in the absence of significant death in other cancer cell lines, suggesting a cell-specific response. We also found that cells undergoing p21-dependent cell death had higher sensitivity to oxidants and a specific pattern of mitochondrial polarization changes. Consistent with this, apoptosis could be blocked with targeted expression of catalase in the mitochondria of these cells. We propose that the balance between cancer cell death and arrest after p21 up-regulation depends on the specific effects of p21-induced ROS on the mitochondria. This suggests that selective up-regulation of p21 in cancer cells could be a successful therapeutic intervention for sarcomas and tumors with lower resistance to mitochondrial oxidative damage, regardless of p53 status.

Defining the prognosis of early stage chronic lymphocytic leukaemia patients.

Approximately 70% of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) patients present with early stage disease, therefore defining which patients will progress and require treatment is a major clinical challenge. Here, we present the largest study of prognostic markers ever carried out in Binet stage A patients (n = 1154) with a median follow-up of 8 years. We assessed the prognostic impact of lymphocyte doubling time (LDT), immunoglobulin gene (IGHV) mutation status, CD38 expression, ZAP-70 expression and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) cytogenetics with regards to time to first treatment (TTFT) and overall survival (OS). Univariate analysis revealed LDT as the most prognostic parameter for TTFT, with IGHV mutation status most prognostic for OS. CD38 expression, ZAP-70 expression and FISH were also prognostic variables; combinations of these markers increased prognostic power in concordant cases. Multivariate analysis revealed that only LDT, IGHV mutation status, CD38 and age at diagnosis were independent prognostic variables for TTFT and OS. Therefore, IGHV mutation status and CD38 expression have independent prognostic value in early stage CLL and should be performed as part of the routine diagnostic workup. ZAP-70 expression and FISH were not independent prognostic markers in early stage disease and can be omitted at diagnosis but FISH analysis should be undertaken at disease progression to direct treatment strategy.

CD49d is an independent prognostic marker that is associated with CXCR4 expression in CLL.

The world of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) research is awash with prognostic markers. However, very few of the current group play a clearly defined role in the pathology of this disease and even fewer represent a tractable therapeutic target. One such marker that fulfils both of these criteria is the integrin CD49d. This molecule been implicated in the capacity of CLL cells to migrate into lymphoid tissues and there is a CD49d blocking antibody, Natalizumab, currently in clinical trials. Here we carried out the largest multi-centre evaluation of CD49d as a prognostic marker in 652 primary CLL samples. We confirm that CD49d is predictive for time to first treatment (P<0.0001) and overall survival (P<0.0001) and increases the prognostic power of CD38, ZAP-70 and IGHV gene mutation status in concordant cases. Furthermore, CD49d retained independent prognostic significance in multivariate analysis. In contrast to previous studies, we showed no correlation between CD49d expression and in vitro resistance to fludarabine in liquid cultures (P=0.28) but CD49d(hi) cells were significantly more resistant than CD49d(lo) cells when assays were carried out on fibronectin-coated plates (P=0.03). Furthermore, we showed for the first time that the expression of CD49d is strongly associated with expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 suggesting a co-ordinated role for these molecules in the trafficking of CLL cells to the lymphoid tissues. Taken together, our data support the introduction of CD49d into routine immunophenotyping panels for CLL and indicate that the therapeutic targeting of this molecule may prove useful in this disease.

Deregulation of the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene by chromosomal translocations in B-cell malignancies.

Sequence variants at the TERT-CLPTM1L locus in chromosome 5p have been recently associated with disposition for various cancers. Here we show that this locus including the gene encoding the telomerase reverse-transcriptase TERT at 5p13.33 is rarely but recurrently targeted by somatic chromosomal translocations to IGH and non-IG loci in B-cell neoplasms, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, mantle cell lymphoma and splenic marginal zone lymphoma. In addition, cases with genomic amplification of TERT locus were identified. Tumors bearing chromosomal aberrations involving TERT showed higher TERT transcriptional expression and increased telomerase activity. These data suggest that deregulation of TERT gene by chromosomal abnormalities leading to increased telomerase activity might contribute to B-cell lymphomagenesis.

Role of NOXA and its ubiquitination in proteasome inhibitor-induced apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells.

BACKGROUND: Bortezomib has been successfully used in the treatment of multiple myeloma and has been proposed as a potential treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukemia. In this study we investigated the mechanism by which bortezomib induces apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. DESIGN AND METHODS: Using western blot analysis, we monitored the regulation of BCL2 family members, proteins of the unfolded protein response (endoplasmic reticulum stress response) and activation of caspases in relation to induction of apoptosis (measured by annexin-propidium iodide staining and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential) by bortezomib in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. RESULTS: Bortezomib induced apoptosis through activation of the mitochondrial pathway independently of changes associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress. Perturbation of mitochondria was regulated by a rapid and transcription-independent increase of NOXA protein, which preceded release of cytochrome c, HtrA2, Smac and activation of caspase-9 and -3. NOXA had a short half life (approximately 1-2 h) and was ubiquitinated on at least three primary lysine residues, resulting in proteasomal-dependent degradation. Down-regulation of NOXA, using short interfering RNA in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells, decreased bortezomib-induced apoptosis. Finally bortezomib when combined with seliciclib resulted in a stronger and earlier increase in NOXA protein, caspase-3 cleavage and induction of apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight a critical role for NOXA in bortezomib-induced apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells and suggest that this drug may become more efficient for the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia if combined with other agents able to interfere with the basal levels of MCL1.

Deregulated expression of cytokine receptor gene, CRLF2, is involved in lymphoid transformation in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

We report 2 novel, cryptic chromosomal abnormalities in precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL): a translocation, either t(X;14)(p22;q32) or t(Y;14)(p11;q32), in 33 patients and an interstitial deletion, either del(X)(p22.33p22.33) or del(Y)(p11.32p11.32), in 64 patients, involving the pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) of the sex chromosomes. The incidence of these abnormalities was 5% in childhood ALL (0.8% with the translocation, 4.2% with the deletion). Patients with the translocation were older (median age, 16 years), whereas the patients with the deletion were younger (median age, 4 years). The 2 abnormalities result in deregulated expression of the cytokine receptor, cytokine receptor-like factor 2, CRLF2 (also known as thymic stromal-derived lymphopoietin receptor, TSLPR). Overexpression of CRLF2 was associated with activation of the JAK-STAT pathway in cell lines and transduced primary B-cell progenitors, sustaining their proliferation and indicating a causal role of CRLF2 overexpression in lymphoid transformation. In Down syndrome (DS) ALL and 2 non-DS BCP-ALL cell lines, CRLF2 deregulation was associated with mutations of the JAK2 pseudokinase domain, suggesting oncogenic cooperation as well as highlighting a link between non-DS ALL and JAK2 mutations.

Concurrent up-regulation of BCL-XL and BCL2A1 induces approximately 1000-fold resistance to ABT-737 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

ABT-737 and its orally active analog, ABT-263, are rationally designed inhibitors of BCL2 and BCL-X(L). ABT-263 shows promising activity in early phase 1 clinical trials in B-cell malignancies, particularly chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). In vitro, peripheral blood CLL cells are extremely sensitive to ABT-737 (EC(50) approximately 7 nM), with rapid induction of apoptosis in all 60 patients tested, independent of parameters associated with disease progression and chemotherapy resistance. In contrast to data from cell lines, ABT-737-induced apoptosis in CLL cells was largely MCL1-independent. Because CLL cells within lymph nodes are more resistant to apoptosis than those in peripheral blood, CLL cells were cultured on CD154-expressing fibroblasts in the presence of interleukin-4 (IL-4) to mimic the lymph node microenvironment. CLL cells thus cultured developed an approximately 1000-fold resistance to ABT-737 within 24 hours. Investigations of the underlying mechanism revealed that this resistance occurred upstream of mitochondrial perturbation and involved de novo synthesis of the antiapoptotic proteins BCL-X(L) and BCL2A1, which were responsible for resistance to low and high ABT-737 concentrations, respectively. Our data indicate that after therapy with ABT-737-related inhibitors, resistant CLL cells might develop in lymph nodes in vivo and that treatment strategies targeting multiple BCL2 antiapoptotic members simultaneously may have synergistic activity.

t(6;14)(p22;q32): a new recurrent IGH@ translocation involving ID4 in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL).

Translocations involving the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus (IGH@) at chromosome band 14q32 are common in mature B-cell neoplasms, but are rare in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL). Here, we report the translocation, t(6;14)(p22;q32), involving IGH@ as a novel recurrent translocation in 13 BCP-ALL patients. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and long-distance inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identified ID4 as the partner gene. Breakpoints were scattered over a 19kb region centromeric of ID4. Quantitative real-time PCR showed up-regulation of ID4 mRNA. All patients had deletions of CDKN2A and PAX5 located on the short arm of chromosome 9, frequently as a result of an isochromosome, i(9)(q10) (9/13, 69%). This study defines a new subgroup of BCP-ALL characterized by ID4 over-expression and CDKN2A and PAX5 deletions. Preliminary survival data suggest that this subgroup may be associated with a good response to therapy.