Autophagy initiation triggers p150Glued-AP-2ß interaction on the lysosomes and facilitates their transport.

The endocytic adaptor protein 2 (AP-2) complex binds dynactin as part of its noncanonical function, which is necessary for dynein-driven autophagosome transport along microtubules in neuronal axons. The absence of this AP-2-dependent transport causes neuronal morphology simplification and neurodegeneration. The mechanisms that lead to formation of the AP-2-dynactin complex have not been studied to date. However, the inhibition of mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) enhances the transport of newly formed autophagosomes by influencing the biogenesis and protein interactions of Rab-interacting lysosomal protein (RILP), another dynein cargo adaptor. We tested effects of mTORC1 inhibition on interactions between the AP-2 and dynactin complexes, with a focus on their two essential subunits, AP-2ß and p150Glued. We found that the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin enhanced p150Glued-AP-2ß complex formation in both neurons and non-neuronal cells. Additional analysis revealed that the p150Glued-AP-2ß interaction was indirect and required integrity of the dynactin complex. In non-neuronal cells rapamycin-driven enhancement of the p150Glued-AP-2ß interaction also required the presence of cytoplasmic linker protein 170 (CLIP-170), the activation of autophagy, and an undisturbed endolysosomal system. The rapamycin-dependent p150Glued-AP-2ß interaction occurred on lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (Lamp-1)-positive organelles but without the need for autolysosome formation. Rapamycin treatment also increased the acidification and number of acidic organelles and increased speed of the long-distance retrograde movement of Lamp-1-positive organelles. Altogether, our results indicate that autophagy regulates the p150Glued-AP-2ß interaction, possibly to coordinate sufficient motor-adaptor complex availability for effective lysosome transport.

SorLA restricts TNFα release from microglia to shape a glioma-supportive brain microenvironment.

SorLA, encoded by the gene SORL1, is an intracellular sorting receptor of the VPS10P domain receptor gene family. Although SorLA is best recognized for its ability to shuttle target proteins between intracellular compartments in neurons, recent data suggest that also its microglial expression can be of high relevance for the pathogenesis of brain diseases, including glioblastoma (GBM). Here, we interrogated the impact of SorLA on the functional properties of glioma-associated microglia and macrophages (GAMs). In the GBM microenvironment, GAMs are re-programmed and lose the ability to elicit anti-tumor responses. Instead, they acquire a glioma-supporting phenotype, which is a key mechanism promoting glioma progression. Our re-analysis of published scRNA-seq data from GBM patients revealed that functional phenotypes of GAMs are linked to the level of SORL1 expression, which was further confirmed using in vitro models. Moreover, we demonstrate that SorLA restrains secretion of TNFα from microglia to restrict the inflammatory potential of these cells. Finally, we show that loss of SorLA exacerbates the pro-inflammatory response of microglia in the murine model of glioma and suppresses tumor growth.

Syngeneic Mouse Model of Glioblastoma: Intracranial Implantation of GL261 Cells.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and prevalent primary brain malignancy in adults. Current treatments provide limited benefit, and thus, the median overall survival of GBM patients is only 15 months. GBM progression is highly dependent on its ability to evade immune response, so understanding the mechanisms behind GBM-driven immunosuppression seems crucial for designing more efficient therapies. Animal models of GBM constitute a convenient tool in glioma research, and several different approaches have been already developed to model this disease in vivo, including genetic and xenograft models. Here, we describe a murine syngeneic model of glioma which recapitulates many of the key features of human disease, including complex tumor microenvironment. We present an optimized protocol for stereotactic intracranial implantation of GL261 cells into C57BL/6 mice which results in tumor growth in the striatum. This model has been widely used to get insight into glioma biology, as well as in the studies aiming at the development and validation of new therapeutic approaches.

ApoE4 disrupts interaction of sortilin with fatty acid-binding protein 7 essential to promote lipid signaling.

Sortilin is a neuronal receptor for apolipoprotein E (apoE). Sortilin-dependent uptake of lipidated apoE promotes conversion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) into neuromodulators that induce anti-inflammatory gene expression in the brain. This neuroprotective pathway works with the apoE3 variant but is lost with the apoE4 variant, the main risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we elucidated steps in cellular handling of lipids through sortilin, and why they are disrupted by apoE4. Combining unbiased proteome screens with analyses in mouse models, we uncover interaction of sortilin with fatty acid-binding protein 7 (FABP7), the intracellular carrier for PUFA in the brain. In the presence of apoE3, sortilin promotes functional expression of FABP7 and its ability to elicit lipid-dependent gene transcription. By contrast, apoE4 binding blocks sortilin-mediated sorting, causing catabolism of FABP7 and impairing lipid signaling. Reduced FABP7 levels in the brain of AD patients expressing apoE4 substantiate the relevance of these interactions for neuronal lipid homeostasis. Taken together, we document interaction of sortilin with mediators of extracellular and intracellular lipid transport that provides a mechanistic explanation for loss of a neuroprotective lipid metabolism in AD.

VPS10P Domain Receptors: Sorting Out Brain Health and Disease.

VPS10P (vacuolar protein sorting 10 protein) domain receptors are neuronal sorting receptors that direct cargo proteins to their destined location in subcellular compartments of the soma, dendrites, and the axon. Protein sorting by receptors such as SORLA, sortilin, and SorCS2 controls functional integrity and viability of neurons, whereas sorting receptor dysfunctions are linked to acute, psychiatric, and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we discuss molecular mechanisms that define ligand repertoire and sorting path and that control plasticity of VPS10P domain receptor expression in the healthy brain and in response to injury. These findings highlight important concepts in neuronal protein sorting and why aberrant sorting contributes to the progression of devastating diseases of the human brain, including epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and frontotemporal dementia.

Apolipoprotein E4 disrupts the neuroprotective action of sortilin in neuronal lipid metabolism and endocannabinoid signaling.

INTRODUCTION: Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a carrier for brain lipids and the most important genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE binds the receptor sortilin, which mediates uptake of apoE-bound cargo into neurons. The significance of this uptake route for brain lipid homeostasis and AD risk seen with apoE4, but not apoE3, remains unresolved. METHODS: Combining neurolipidomics in patient specimens with functional studies in mouse models, we interrogated apoE isoform-specific functions for sortilin in brain lipid metabolism and AD. RESULTS: Sortilin directs the uptake and conversion of polyunsaturated fatty acids into endocannabinoids, lipid-based neurotransmitters that act through nuclear receptors to sustain neuroprotective gene expression in the brain. This sortilin function requires apoE3, but is disrupted by binding of apoE4, compromising neuronal endocannabinoid metabolism and action. DISCUSSION: We uncovered the significance of neuronal apoE receptor sortilin in facilitating neuroprotective actions of brain lipids, and its relevance for AD risk seen with apoE4.

SorCS2 facilitates release of endostatin from astrocytes and controls post-stroke angiogenesis.

SorCS2 is an intracellular sorting receptor of the VPS10P domain receptor gene family recently implicated in oxidative stress response. Here, we interrogated the relevance of stress-related activities of SorCS2 in the brain by exploring its role in ischemic stroke in mouse models and in patients. Although primarily seen in neurons in the healthy brain, expression of SorCS2 was massively induced in astrocytes surrounding the ischemic core in mice following stroke. Post-stroke induction was likely a result of increased levels of transforming growth factor ß1 in damaged brain tissue, inducing Sorcs2 gene transcription in astrocytes but not neurons. Induced astrocytic expression of SorCS2 was also seen in stroke patients, substantiating the clinical relevance of this observation. In astrocytes in vitro and in the mouse brain in vivo, SorCS2 specifically controlled release of endostatin, a factor linked to post-stroke angiogenesis. The ability of astrocytes to release endostatin acutely after stroke was lost in mice deficient for SorCS2, resulting in a blunted endostatin response which coincided with impaired vascularization of the ischemic brain. Our findings identified activated astrocytes as a source for endostatin in modulation of post-stroke angiogenesis, and the importance of the sorting receptor SorCS2 in this brain stress response.

Excitatory Amino Acid Transporters in Physiology and Disorders of the Central Nervous System.

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) encompass a class of five transporters with distinct expression in neurons and glia of the central nervous system (CNS). EAATs are mainly recognized for their role in uptake of the amino acid glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter. EAATs-mediated clearance of glutamate released by neurons is vital to maintain proper glutamatergic signalling and to prevent toxic accumulation of this amino acid in the extracellular space. In addition, some EAATs also act as chloride channels or mediate the uptake of cysteine, required to produce the reactive oxygen speciesscavenger glutathione. Given their central role in glutamate homeostasis in the brain, as well as their additional activities, it comes as no surprise that EAAT dysfunctions have been implicated in numerous acute or chronic diseases of the CNS, including ischemic stroke and epilepsy, cerebellar ataxias, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease. Here we review the studies in cellular and animal models, as well as in humans that highlight the roles of EAATs in the pathogenesis of these devastating disorders. We also discuss the mechanisms regulating EAATs expression and intracellular trafficking and new exciting possibilities to modulate EAATs and to provide neuroprotection in course of pathologies affecting the CNS.

SorCS2 Controls Functional Expression of Amino Acid Transporter EAAT3 and Protects Neurons from Oxidative Stress and Epilepsy-Induced Pathology.

VPS10P domain receptors emerge as central regulators of intracellular protein sorting in neurons with relevance for various brain pathologies. Here, we identified a role for the family member SorCS2 in protection of neurons from oxidative stress and epilepsy-induced cell death. We show that SorCS2 acts as sorting receptor that sustains cell surface expression of the neuronal amino acid transporter EAAT3 to facilitate import of cysteine, required for synthesis of the reactive oxygen species scavenger glutathione. Lack of SorCS2 causes depletion of EAAT3 from the plasma membrane and impairs neuronal cysteine uptake. As a consequence, SorCS2-deficient mice exhibit oxidative brain damage that coincides with enhanced neuronal cell death and increased mortality during epilepsy. Our findings highlight a protective role for SorCS2 in neuronal stress response and provide a possible explanation for upregulation of this receptor seen in surviving neurons of the human epileptic brain.

SORCS1 and SORCS3 control energy balance and orexigenic peptide production.

SORCS1 and SORCS3 are two related sorting receptors expressed in neurons of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. Using mouse models with individual or dual receptor deficiencies, we document a previously unknown function of these receptors in central control of metabolism. Specifically, SORCS1 and SORCS3 act as intracellular trafficking receptors for tropomyosin-related kinase B to attenuate signaling by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a potent regulator of energy homeostasis. Loss of the joint action of SORCS1 and SORCS3 in mutant mice results in excessive production of the orexigenic neuropeptide agouti-related peptide and in a state of chronic energy excess characterized by enhanced food intake, decreased locomotor activity, diminished usage of lipids as metabolic fuel, and increased adiposity, albeit at overall reduced body weight. Our findings highlight a novel concept in regulation of the melanocortin system and the role played by trafficking receptors SORCS1 and SORCS3 in this process.

Adaptor Complex 2 Controls Dendrite Morphology via mTOR-Dependent Expression of GluA2.

The formation of dendritic arbors in neurons is a highly regulated process. Among the regulators of dendritogenesis are numerous membrane proteins that are eventually internalized via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. AP2 is an adaptor complex that is responsible for recruiting endocytic machinery to internalized cargo. Its direct involvement in dendritogenesis in mammalian neurons has not yet been tested. We found that the knockdown of AP2b1 (ß2-adaptin), an AP2 subunit, reduced the number of dendrites in developing rat hippocampal neurons and decreased α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit GluA2 levels by inhibiting mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). The dendritic tree abruption that was caused by AP2b1 knockdown was rescued by the overexpression of GluA2 or restoration of the activity of the mTOR effector p70S6 kinase (S6K1). Altogether, this work provides evidence that the AP2 adaptor complex is needed for the dendritogenesis of mammalian neurons and reveals that mTOR-dependent GluA2 biosynthesis contributes to this process.

Retrograde transport of TrkB-containing autophagosomes via the adaptor AP-2 mediates neuronal complexity and prevents neurodegeneration.

Autophagosomes primarily mediate turnover of cytoplasmic proteins or organelles to provide nutrients and eliminate damaged proteins. In neurons, autophagosomes form in distal axons and are trafficked retrogradely to fuse with lysosomes in the soma. Although defective neuronal autophagy is associated with neurodegeneration, the function of neuronal autophagosomes remains incompletely understood. We show that in neurons, autophagosomes promote neuronal complexity and prevent neurodegeneration in vivo via retrograde transport of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-activated TrkB receptors. p150Glued/dynactin-dependent transport of TrkB-containing autophagosomes requires their association with the endocytic adaptor AP-2, an essential protein complex previously thought to function exclusively in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. These data highlight a novel non-canonical function of AP-2 in retrograde transport of BDNF/TrkB-containing autophagosomes in neurons and reveal a causative link between autophagy and BDNF/TrkB signalling.

mTOR kinase is needed for the development and stabilization of dendritic arbors in newly born olfactory bulb neurons.

Neurogenesis is the process of neuron generation, which occurs not only during embryonic development but also in restricted niches postnatally. One such region is called the subventricular zone (SVZ), which gives rise to new neurons in the olfactory bulb (OB). Neurons that are born postnatally migrate through more complex territories and integrate into fully functional circuits. Therefore, differences in the differentiation of embryonic and postnatally born neurons may exist. Dendritogenesis is an important process for the proper formation of future neuronal circuits. Dendritogenesis in embryonic neurons cultured in vitro was shown to depend on the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Still unknown, however, is whether mTOR could regulate the dendritic arbor morphology of SVZ-derived postnatal OB neurons under physiological conditions in vivo. The present study used in vitro cultured and differentiated SVZ-derived neural progenitors and found that both mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2 were required for the dendritogenesis of SVZ-derived neurons. Furthermore, using a combination of in vivo electroporation of neural stem cells in the SVZ and genetic and pharmacological inhibition of mTOR, it was found that mTOR was crucial for the growth of basal and apical dendrites in postnatally born OB neurons under physiological conditions and contributed to the stabilization of their basal dendrites. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 76: 1308-1327, 2016.

Tuberous sclerosis complex neuropathology requires glutamate-cysteine ligase.

INTRODUCTION: Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a genetic disease resulting from mutation in TSC1 or TSC2 and subsequent hyperactivation of mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR). Common TSC features include brain lesions, such as cortical tubers and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGAs). However, the current treatment with mTOR inhibitors has critical limitations. We aimed to identify new targets for TSC pharmacotherapy. RESULTS: The results of our shRNA screen point to glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC), a key enzyme in glutathione synthesis, as a contributor to TSC-related phenotype. GCLC inhibition increased cellular stress and reduced mTOR hyperactivity in TSC2-depleted neurons and SEGA-derived cells. Moreover, patients' brain tubers showed elevated GCLC and stress markers expression. Finally, GCLC inhibition led to growth arrest and death of SEGA-derived cells. CONCLUSIONS: We describe GCLC as a part of redox adaptation in TSC, needed for overgrowth and survival of mutant cells, and provide a potential novel target for SEGA treatment.

Matricellular proteins of the Cyr61/CTGF/NOV (CCN) family and the nervous system.

Matricellular proteins are secreted proteins that exist at the border of cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). However, instead of playing a role in structural integrity of the ECM, these proteins, that act as modulators of various surface receptors, have a regulatory function and instruct a multitude of cellular responses. Among matricellular proteins are members of the Cyr61/CTGF/NOV (CCN) protein family. These proteins exert their activity by binding directly to integrins and heparan sulfate proteoglycans and activating multiple intracellular signaling pathways. CCN proteins also influence the activity of growth factors and cytokines and integrate their activity with integrin signaling. At the cellular level, CCN proteins regulate gene expression and cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, senescence, adhesion, and migration. To date, CCN proteins have been extensively studied in the context of osteo- and chondrogenesis, angiogenesis, and carcinogenesis, but the expression of these proteins is also observed in a variety of tissues. The role of CCN proteins in the nervous system has not been systematically studied or described. Thus, the major aim of this review is to introduce the CCN protein family to the neuroscience community. We first discuss the structure, interactions, and cellular functions of CCN proteins and then provide a detailed review of the available data on the neuronal expression and contribution of CCN proteins to nervous system development, function, and pathology.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor induces matrix metalloproteinase 9 expression in neurons via the serum response factor/c-Fos pathway.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a pivotal role in the regulation of the transcription of genes that encode proplasticity proteins. In the present study, we provide evidence that stimulation of rat primary cortical neurons with BDNF upregulates matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) mRNA and protein levels and increases enzymatic activity. The BDNF-induced MMP-9 transcription was dependent on extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway and c-Fos expression. Overexpression of AP-1 dimers in neurons led to MMP-9 promoter activation, with the most potent being those that contained c-Fos, whereas knockdown of endogenous c-Fos by small hairpin RNA (shRNA) reduced BDNF-mediated MMP-9 transcription. Additionally, mutation of the proximal AP-1 binding site in the MMP-9 promoter inhibited the activation of MMP-9 transcription. BDNF stimulation of neurons induced binding of endogenous c-Fos to the proximal MMP-9 promoter region. Furthermore, as the c-Fos gene is a known target of serum response factor (SRF), we investigated whether SRF contributes to MMP-9 transcription. Inhibition of SRF and its cofactors by either overexpression of dominant negative mutants or shRNA decreased MMP-9 promoter activation. In contrast, MMP-9 transcription was not dependent on CREB activity. Finally, we showed that neuronal activity stimulates MMP-9 transcription in a tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB)-dependent manner.

Beyond control of protein translation: what we have learned about the non-canonical regulation and function of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR).

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine-threonine kinase involved in almost every aspect of mammalian cell function. This kinase was initially believed to control protein translation in response to amino acids and trophic factors, and this function has become a canonical role for mTOR. However, mTOR can form two separate protein complexes (mTORCs). Recent advances clearly demonstrate that both mTORCs can respond to various stimuli and change myriad cellular processes. Therefore, our current view of the cellular roles of TORCs has rapidly expanded and cannot be fully explained without appreciating recent findings about the new modes of mTOR regulation and identification of non-canonical effectors of mTOR that contribute to transcription, cytoskeleton dynamics, and membrane trafficking. This review discusses the molecular details of these newly discovered non-canonical functions that allow mTORCs to control the cellular environment at multiple levels. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases (2012).

Cyr61, a matricellular protein, is needed for dendritic arborization of hippocampal neurons.

The shape of the dendritic arbor is one of the criteria of neuron classification and reflects functional specialization of particular classes of neurons. The development of a proper dendritic branching pattern strongly relies on interactions between the extracellular environment and intracellular processes responsible for dendrite growth and stability. We previously showed that mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase is crucial for this process. In this work, we performed a screen for modifiers of dendritic growth in hippocampal neurons, the expression of which is potentially regulated by mTOR. As a result, we identified Cyr61, an angiogenic factor with unknown neuronal function, as a novel regulator of dendritic growth, which controls dendritic growth in a ß1-integrin-dependent manner.

CLIP-170 and IQGAP1 cooperatively regulate dendrite morphology.

Dendritic arbors are compartments of neurons dedicated to receiving synaptic inputs. Their shape is an outcome of both the intrinsic genetic program and environmental signals. The microtubules and actin cytoskeleton are both crucial for proper dendritic morphology, but how they interact is unclear. The present study demonstrates that microtubule plus-end tracking protein CLIP-170 and actin-binding protein IQGAP1 regulate dendrite morphology of rat neurons by coordinating the interaction between microtubules and the actin cytoskeleton. Moreover, we show that mTOR kinase interacts with CLIP-170 and is needed for efficient formation of a protein complex containing CLIP-170 and IQGAP1. Dynamic microtubules, CLIP-170, and IQGAP1 are required for proper dendritic arbor morphology and PI3K-mTOR-induced increase in dendritic arbor complexity. Moreover, CLIP-170 and IQGAP1 knockdown modulates dendritic arbor growth via regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. We postulate that mTOR controls dendritic arbor morphology by enhancing cross talk between dynamic microtubules and actin through CLIP-170 and IQGAP1.

Inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-2 protects against amyloid beta peptide-evoked memory impairment in mice.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) results in an impairment of memory and behavior. It is accepted that amyloid beta (A beta) peptides are responsible for the etiopathology of AD, but the precise signaling pathways leading to the disease have not been elucidated. In this study, we have investigated the role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in A beta(1-42)-evoked memory impairment in mice. Moreover, the effect of systemic inflammation on A beta-dependent locomotor and memory disturbances has been evaluated. Twelve-month-old C57Bl6 mice were injected intracerebroventricularly (icv) with A beta(1-42) alone or simultaneously with intraperitoneal (ip) administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Some mice also received COX-2 inhibitor, NS-398. Another group of mice was pretreated with LPS at 4 and 7 months of age, and then injected with A beta(1-42) at 12 months of age. All mice were subjected to behavioral tests one week after A beta administration. COX-2 protein level was analyzed in the hippocampus using immunochemical method. Our data demonstrated that A beta enhanced COX-2 protein level and decreased the locomotion and exploration in mice. Systemic inflammation elevated COX-2 immunoreactivity at an early stage after injection and intensified behavioral disturbances. Moreover, the object recognition in A beta-treated mice was significantly affected compared to control mice. The administration of LPS simultaneously with A beta worsened recognition performance. A COX-2 inhibitor protected mice against memory deficit and locomotor disturbances. In LPS-pretreated animals, A beta induced locomotor disturbances, but had no effect on memory and COX-2 level. Our results indicate that A beta evokes enhancement of COX-2 protein level and memory deficit. Systemic inflammation modulates A beta effect on the brain function. The COX-2 inhibitor protects the brain against A beta-induced memory disturbances.