Associations Between Restrictive Feeding Practices and Children's Dietary Intake: Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses.

BACKGROUND: Parents' attempt to limit or restrict children's intake of 'unhealthy' or discretionary foods has been widely considered as a counterproductive feeding practice associated with poorer dietary outcomes, but empirical evidence is varied. AIM: The present systematic literature review aimed to investigate the association between parental restriction and children's dietary intake. METHOD: Studies were identified through PsycInfo, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Scopus databases on April 29th 2022. Included were peer-reviewed, English-language articles published between 2001-2022, with an effect size between restriction and children's intake of foods that are 'healthy' (i.e., fruit, vegetables, other general healthy foods) or 'discretionary' (i.e., sweet or savoury energy-dense/nutrient poor foods, high-sugar foods, high-salt/fat foods, and high-energy/sugar-sweetened beverages), or overall diet quality. Risk of bias was assessed using a quality assessment checklist designed to evaluate survey studies. RESULTS: Included studies (n = 44) were most often conducted in the USA, cross-sectional, and participants were mothers. Effect sizes (k = 59) from 21 studies were used in nine meta-analyses investigating various healthy and discretionary dietary intake variables. No meta-analytic effects were statistically significant. Qualitative synthesis of effect sizes ineligible for meta-analysis (k = 91) identified patterns of associations between restriction and increased intake of healthy foods, and decreased intake of discretionary foods. CONCLUSIONS: Studies used a diverse selection of measures of restriction and dietary intake, limiting the ability of this review to make accurate cross-study comparisons. However, results suggest that instead of restriction being detrimental for children's dietary outcomes, it may be unrelated, or associated with more beneficial dietary outcomes. Research that utilises validated measures of restriction and dietary outcomes and a longitudinal design is needed to clarify this association.

Paternal postnatal depression and parenting behaviours in the first year of life.

BACKGROUND: Paternal postnatal depression (PPD) symptomology has been positively associated with poorer outcomes for children. One mechanism by which PPD is thought to influence child outcomes is through parenting. The current study investigated the association between paternal postnatal depressive symptoms and parenting behaviours. METHOD: Fathers (N = 213) with an infant (mean age = 7 months, 46% female) between 2 and 12 months old were recruited through community and social media advertisements, as well as a paid survey recruitment website. Fathers completed a questionnaire on their symptoms of PPD and how they care for and raise their child (parental warmth, irritability, engagement in enrichment, play and safety behaviours). RESULTS: Fathers experiencing greater levels of PPD symptomatology self-reported higher irritability, lower warmth and fewer safe parenting behaviours but did not report lower enrichment or play with their infants. CONCLUSION: Overall, findings suggest that PPD symptomology may impact negatively on aspects of fathers' parenting behaviours. Further research using larger and more diverse samples is needed to assess the generalisability of these findings.

Developing and validating a novel staff questionnaire to identify barriers and enablers to nutrition and mealtime care on hospital wards.

AIMS: Improving hospital nutrition and mealtime care is complex and often requires multifaceted interventions and implementation strategies to change how staff, wards and systems operate. This study aimed to develop and validate a staff questionnaire to identify multilevel barriers and enablers to optimal nutrition and mealtime care on hospital wards, to inform and evaluate local quality improvement. METHODS: Literature review, multidisciplinary focus groups and end-user testing informed questionnaire development and establishment of content and face validity. To determine the construct validity, the questionnaire was administered to ward staff working in five wards across two facilities (acute hospital, rehabilitation unit). Exploratory factor analysis was used to estimate the number of factors and to guide decisions about whether to retain or reject individual items. Scale reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: The questionnaire was completed by 138 staff, with most respondents being nurses (57%) and working in the acute care facility (76%). Exploratory factor analysis supported construct validity of four of the original seven subscales. The final questionnaire consisted of 17 items and 4 sub sub-scales related to (1) Personal Staff Role; (2) Food Service; (3) Organisational Support, and (4) Family Involvement; each sub-scale demonstrated good reliability with Cronbach's alpha values all >0.70. CONCLUSION: This novel and brief questionnaire shows good reliability and preliminary evidence of construct validity in this small sample. It provides a potentially useful instrument to identify barriers and enablers to nutrition and mealtime care from the staff perspective and inform where improvement efforts should be focused.

The correlation between different operationalisations of parental restrictive feeding practices and children's eating behaviours: Systematic review and meta-analyses.

Strategies used by parents to restrict children's access to highly palatable but unhealthy foods have been described collectively as restrictive feeding practices. Ironically, evidence shows these practices may foster maladaptive eating behaviours and increase children's risk of obesity. This systematic review and series of meta-analyses aim to estimate the relationships between different operationalisations of parental restrictive feeding practices and children's eating behaviours measured by either the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (Wardle et al., 2001) or eating in the absence of hunger paradigm. PsycINFO, Medline Complete, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched on April 22nd 2021 for terms relating to restrictive feeding practices, children and eating behaviours. Eligible studies (n = 24) reported a correlation between restrictive feeding and children's (2-12-years) eating behaviours. Meta-analyses were conducted on different operationalisations of restrictive feeding practices and different eating behaviours where there were three or more effects to analyse. Studies that were not meta-analysed were synthesised qualitatively. All studies were quality assessed using a standard checklist. Restrictive feeding (Child Feeding Questionnaire; Birch et al., 2001), was significantly correlated with higher food responsiveness, food fussiness, emotional overeating, and lower slowness in eating. Overt restriction (Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire, E. Jansen et al., 2014) was significantly correlated with higher food responsiveness. The qualitative synthesis suggests overt restriction is related to maladaptive eating behaviours, but that other operationalisations of restrictive feeding, especially covert restriction, are not. Future research should examine whether covert restriction provides an alternative, non-harmful approach to restriction, by which parents can control children's diet quality without negatively impacting their eating behaviours.

Qualitative Exploration of Dimensions of Restrictive Feeding With Australian Mothers of 6-Year-Olds.

OBJECTIVE: Explore the nature and dimensions of restrictive feeding with mothers of 6-year-olds. DESIGN: Semistructured interviews with mothers. Conversations were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. SETTING: Brisbane and Adelaide, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-nine mothers of 6-year-olds. PHENOMENON OF INTEREST: Mothers' restrictive feeding practices. ANALYSIS: Qualitative thematic analysis. RESULTS: This study revealed 6 key themes relating to the restrictive feeding phenomenon: restriction of specific foods and drinks; restrictive feeding practices; mothers' motivation; mothers' preferences for restricted foods; patterns over time; and relationships with other controlling feeding practices. Parents' restrictive feeding practices are likely to be inherently inconsistent, with mothers reportedly varying their practices across different restricted foods, contexts, day to day, and as children age. Mothers intended to either totally restrict or restrict a food/drink in moderation, and these intentions presented qualitatively distinct characteristics across themes. Mothers commonly referred to foods/drinks restricted in moderation as treats, and their liking for these restricted foods/drinks was related to higher child access. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study provides insights into the nature and dimensions of restrictive feeding. Further research is proposed to clarify these findings and examine the effects of child access, types of restrictive feeding practices, and parent communication on child preferences for restricted foods and drinks across a range of cultural groups.

Comparison of Early Feeding Practices in Mother-Father Dyads and Possible Generalization of an Efficacious Maternal Intervention to Fathers' Feeding Practices: A Secondary Analysis.

To compare feeding practices within mother-father dyads and explore whether outcomes of an efficacious intervention for mothers generalised to fathers' feeding practices. The NOURISH RCT evaluated an early feeding intervention that promoted positive feeding practices to support development of healthy eating habits and growth. The intervention was delivered to first-time mothers via 2 × 12 week modules commencing when children were 4 and 14 months. Mothers self-reported feeding practice outcomes at child age 2 years using validated scales (1 = low to 5 = high) from the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ). Nine months later, an independent cross-sectional descriptive study to investigate fathers' feeding practices was initiated. Fathers were recruited by contacting (via letter) mothers participating in two pre-existing studies, including the NOURISH trial. Fathers completed a feeding practices questionnaire, similar to that used for NOURISH outcome assessments. Seventy-five fathers recruited via the NOURISH cohort (21% response) returned questionnaires. Response data from this subset of fathers were then linked to the corresponding NOURISH maternal data. Complete data were available from 70 dyads. Compared with mothers, fathers self-reported higher concern about child overweight (2.2 vs. 1.3), restriction (3.6 vs. 2.9) and pressure (2.6 vs. 2.1), all p < 0.001. Fathers whose partners were allocated to the intervention group used less pressure (mean difference 0.46, p = 0.045) and were more willing to let the child decide how much to eat (-0.51, p = 0.032). Fathers' higher concern about child weight and more frequent use of non-responsive feeding practices, when compared with mothers, identify them as potentially potent contributors to child feeding. This preliminary evidence for modest generalisation of an efficacious maternal intervention to apparent effects on some paternal feeding practices speaks to the importance and promise of including fathers in early feeding interventions.

Examining child intake frequency, mothers' own liking and child early exposure as potential predictors of child liking for restricted foods and drinks at 5 years old.

OBJECTIVE: To examine longitudinal patterns of child introduction to foods and drinks targeted for restriction by parents and associations between child intake frequency, mother's own liking, child early exposure and child liking for restricted foods and drinks at 5 years old. DESIGN: The study involved secondary analyses of longitudinal data from mothers and children participating in the NOURISH randomised controlled trial. Patterns of descriptive data were examined, and a binary logistic regression model tested for prediction of child liking of a selection of restricted foods and drinks. SETTING: Brisbane and Adelaide, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred and eleven mothers and their first born 5-year-old children. RESULTS: The proportion of children who had tried the selected restricted foods and drinks progressively increased from 14 months to 5 years old. Mothers' own high liking for both sweet and savoury restricted foods and drinks predicted child high liking for the same items at 5 years old. Child high intake frequency at 5 years old also predicted child high liking for sweet foods and drinks, but child early exposure did not predict child liking for the restricted items examined. CONCLUSIONS: These results challenge the belief that limiting children's intake of foods high in sugar, fat and/or salt will increase their liking for them. Findings instead suggest that restricting children's access to such foods may be beneficial. While further research is required, mothers should be made aware that their own food preferences may inadvertently influence their child's liking for the very foods they are trying to restrict.

Associations between appetitive traits, dietary patterns and weight status of children attending the School Kids Intervention Program.

BACKGROUND: The nexus between appetitive traits, dietary patterns and weight status has predominantly been studied in a mixed sample (healthy weight, overweight and obese sample). AIM: This cross-sectional study examined associations between overweight/obese children's appetitive traits, dietary patterns and weight status. METHODS: We studied children (N = 58, body mass index z-score: 2.25±0.46), 4-12 years attending the School Kids Intervention Program. Children's appetitive traits and dietary patterns were measured with the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire and Children's Dietary Questionnaire, respectively. Children's height and weight were used to compute body mass index z-score; waist circumference was also measured and waist-to-height ratio was calculated. RESULTS: After controlling for children's age and gender, hierarchical linear regression analyses showed that lower scores for slowness in eating were associated with higher body mass index z-scores in children (ß = -0.31, p = 0.01). Higher scores for emotional overeating were associated with higher waist-to-height ratio in children (ß = 0.48, p = 0.01). Higher scores for fussiness were correlated with lower scores for fruits and vegetables (ß = -0.59, p < 0.001) and higher scores for non-core foods (ß = 0.26, p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Results observed in the current sample of overweight and obese children are consistent with previous studies examining healthy-weight children. Slowness in eating may foster an obesity 'protective' effect, whereas emotional overeating may promote susceptibility to weight gain. Fussy eating may impair diet quality by lower consumption of vegetables and fruits and higher intake of non-core foods. This evidence will support dietitians to consider children's appetitive traits when providing dietary consultation to support obesity management among overweight/obese children.

Non-responsive feeding practices mediate the relationship between maternal and child obesogenic eating behaviours.

Both genetic and environmental influences underpin complex multidimensional associations between maternal and child eating behaviours, maternal feeding practices and child obesity risk. The aim of the present study was to explore cross-sectional relationships between maternal and child eating behaviours, and to examine whether maternal feeding practices mediate these relationships. Data were available from 478 Australian mothers (M = 38.8 years, SD = 5.6) of a 5-10 year old child (M = 7.0 years, SD = 1.1; 48.2% male). Mothers completed an online survey that included validated measures of maternal eating behaviours, maternal feeding practices and child eating behaviours. Maternal emotional overeating and food responsiveness, were each positively associated with the parallel child eating behaviour (r = 0.29 and r = 0.21, ps < .001, respectively). Mediation analyses showed that both the relationship between maternal and child emotional overeating and between maternal and child food responsiveness, were partially mediated by use of food as a reward and overt restriction (total indirect effect: .04, 95% CI 0.02, 0.07 and 0.82, 95% CI 0.04, 0.13, respectively). Findings suggest a role for feeding practices in explaining the concordance between maternal and child eating behaviours. Moreover, the results highlight the need for interventions that support parents to recognise these eating behaviours in themselves and their children and understand how these may potentially influence the feeding practices they use. Future longitudinal research that confirms the cross-sectional relationships between maternal and child eating behaviours and feeding practices reported here will strengthen the evidence to support the importance of feeding practices in the development of dietary intake patterns and obesity risk.

Effect of Parental Feeding Practices (i.e., Responsive Feeding) on Children's Eating Behavior.

Child eating behaviors contribute to individual variability in weight status and are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Feeding practices have been identified as a potentially modifiable factor that can influence children's dietary intake and eating behaviors. However, the majority of research in the field has been cross-sectional whereas more recently a bidirectional relationship between parent feeding and child eating has been proposed. The purpose of this review is to provide a summary of patterns of findings related to feeding practices that may support or undermine children's eating behaviors. The focus is specifically on eating behaviors related to appetite regulation and obesity risk. Evidence for the potential effect of nonresponsive feeding practices as well as structure-related practices is presented. In sum, there is evidence that parents' feeding practices do impact on children's eating behaviors, but children's eating behaviors also influence the feeding practices parents use. Suggestions for future research in terms of design, measures, and research questions are proposed. Future work in this area will serve to build the evidence base for targeted intervention strategies that can guide parents to feed their children in a way that optimizes child health.

Comparing barriers to breastfeeding success in the first month for non-overweight and overweight women.

BACKGROUND: Women who enter pregnancy overweight or obese tend to have poorer breastfeeding outcomes compared to non-overweight women. Women's experiences of specific breastfeeding-related problems and reasons for use of formula have not been systematically investigated according to pre-pregnancy BMI. The aim of this study was to compare self-reported breastfeeding problems in non-overweight and overweight women and identify the main reasons for use of infant formula during the first month postpartum. METHODS: The present study involved a cross-sectional secondary analysis of data collected as part of a hospital-based longitudinal study of women that commenced in pregnancy (~ 16 weeks). At ~ 4 months postpartum Australian women (N = 477) self-reported breastfeeding problems and reasons for use of infant formula during the first month postpartum. Pre-pregnancy BMI was calculated based on self-reported pre-pregnancy weight and measured height. Binary logistic regression analyses were used to compare pre-pregnancy weight status groups ("non-overweight" [BMI < 25 km/m2] and "overweight" [BMI ≥25 km/m2]) on self-reported breastfeeding problems and reasons for use of infant formula. Analyses were adjusted for covariates that differed between groups (P < .1). RESULTS: Frequency of self-reported breastfeeding problems was similar across weight status groups. "Not enough milk" was the predominant reason for giving infant formula. Overweight women were more likely than non-overweight women to agree that infant formula was as good as breastmilk. CONCLUSIONS: Overall it does not appear that overweight women are more likely to experience a range of specific breastfeeding problems in the first months compared to non-overweight women. However, the severity and duration of the problems needs to be examined. Breastfeeding interventions need to addresses concerns around milk supply as these are common and are likely to be of universal benefit however overweight women in particular may benefit from guidance regarding the benefits of breastfeeding for both themselves and their infants.

Concern Explaining Nonresponsive Feeding: A Study of Mothers' and Fathers' Response to Their Child's Fussy Eating.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the role of parent concern in explaining nonresponsive feeding practices in response to child fussy eating in socioeconomically disadvantaged families. DESIGN: Mediation analysis of cross-sectional survey data. SETTING: Socioeconomically disadvantaged urban community in Queensland, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Cohabiting mother-father pairs (n = 208) with children aged 2-5 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Two validated measures of nonresponsive feeding: persuasive feeding and reward for eating. ANALYSIS: Mediation analysis tested concern as a mediator of the relationship between child food fussiness (independent variable) and parent nonresponsive feeding practices (dependent variables), adjusted for significant covariates and modeled separately for mothers and fathers. RESULTS: Maternal concern fully mediated the relationship between child food fussiness and persuasive feeding (indirect effect: B [SE] = 0.10 [0.05]; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01-0.20). Concern also fully mediated the relationship between child food fussiness and reward for eating for mothers (indirect effect: B [SE] = 0.17 [0.07]; CI, 0.04-0.31) and fathers (indirect effect: B [SE] = 0.14 [0.05]; CI, 0.04-0.24) CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Concern for fussy eating behaviors may explain mothers' and fathers' nonresponsive feeding practices. In addition to providing education and behavioral support, health professionals working with socioeconomically disadvantaged families can incorporate strategies that aim to alleviate parents' concerns about fussy eating.

Poor dietary patterns at 1-5 years of age are related to food neophobia and breastfeeding duration but not age of introduction to solids in a relatively advantaged sample.

Previous studies have investigated associations between individual foods or food group intake, and breastfeeding duration, age of solid introduction and food neophobia. This study aimed to investigate associations between whole dietary patterns in young children, and breastfeeding duration, age of solid introduction and food neophobia. Parents of children (N = 234) aged 1-5 years completed an online questionnaire. Dietary risk scores were calculated using the Toddler (1-3 years) or Preschool (>3-<5 years) Dietary Questionnaires which evaluates the previous week's food-group intake (scored 0-100; higher score = higher risk of poor dietary quality). Neophobia was measured using the Child Food Neophobia scale (1.0-4.0; higher score = more neophobic). Associations were investigated using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for covariates. Children (54% female, 3.0 ±â€¯1.4 years) were from advantaged families and were breastfed until 11.8 (5.0-16.0) months, started solids at 5.6 ±â€¯1.4 months of age, moderately neophobic (2.1 ±â€¯0.7) and at moderate dietary risk (29.2 ±â€¯9.2). Shorter breastfeeding duration (ß = -0.21; p = 0.001) and poorer child food neophobia scores (ß = 0.36; p < 0.001) were associated with higher dietary risk scores. Age of introduction to solids showed no association with dietary risk (p = 0.744). These findings suggest that in addition to breastfeeding promotion, supporting parents to manage neophobic behaviour may be important in promoting healthy eating patterns in early childhood.

Feeding a Fussy Eater: Examining Longitudinal Bidirectional Relationships Between Child Fussy Eating and Maternal Feeding Practices.

Objective: Child fussy eating has been associated with a range of maternal feeding practices; however, whether effects are parent-driven, child-driven, or bidirectional (i.e., both) remains unclear. This study tested for bidirectional relationships between nonresponsive and structure-related maternal feeding practices and child fussy eating at age 2, 3.7, and 5 years using a cross-lagged model approach. Methods: First-time Australian mothers (N = 207) reported four nonresponsive and four structure-related feeding practices and child food fussiness (FF) using validated questionnaires at child age 2, 3.7, and 5 years. Bivariate cross-lagged analyses were conducted for each of the eight feeding practices separately. Results: Both child- and parent-driven associations were observed. Higher FF at 3.7 years predicted higher nonresponsive feeding practices and less structure-related practices at 5 years. Higher structure-related practices at 2 and 3.7 years predicted lower FF at 3.7 and 5 years, respectively. Use of food as a reward for behavior at 3.7 years predicted higher FF at 5 years. Conclusions: Both parent- and child-driven associations explain the relationship between fussy eating and feeding practices. Given that early fussy eating is associated with more nonresponsive feeding, providing parents with anticipatory guidance to manage fussy eating behavior in infants and toddlers may help to avoid the use of these practices. Furthermore, the use of structure-related feeding practices and avoiding the use of food rewards may help to prevent the development of fussy eating.

Do Dads Make a Difference? Family Feeding Dynamics and Child Fussy Eating.

OBJECTIVE: Few studies on child feeding have focused on family dynamics or disadvantaged families, yet feeding occurs in the complex social, economic, and relational context of the family. We examined how the level (high vs low) and concordance (concordant vs discordant) of nonresponsive feeding practices of mothers and fathers are associated with child fussy eating, in a socioeconomically disadvantaged Australian sample. METHODS: Mother-father pairs (N = 208) of children aged 2 to 5 years old independently completed validated questionnaires reporting their "persuasive feeding," "reward for eating," "reward for behavior," and child's "food fussiness." The fussiness scores did not differ between mother-father pairs and were averaged to derive a single dependent variable. K-means cluster analyses were used to assign mother-father pairs to clusters for each feeding practice, based on mean scores. Three ANCOVAs, corresponding to each feeding practice, tested differences in child fussiness across clusters while controlling for covariates. RESULTS: Four clusters were identified for each feeding practice-concordant: (1) high (MHi/FHi) for both parents and (2) low (MLo/FLo) for both parents; and discordant: (3) high for mother but low for father (MHi/FLo); and (4) low for mother but high for father (MLo/FHi). For "persuasive feeding," MLo/FLo reported lower levels of fussiness compared with MHi/FLo, MHi/FHi, and MLo/FHi (p values < 0.05). For "reward for eating," MLo/FLo reported lower levels of fussiness than did MHi/FHi (p < 0.05). Child fussiness did not differ across "reward for behavior" clusters. CONCLUSION: In socioeconomically disadvantaged families, when parents are concordant in avoiding nonresponsive feeding practices, less child "food fussiness" is reported. Findings suggest that feeding interventions should consider inclusion of both parents in 2-parent households.

Bidirectional associations between mothers' feeding practices and child eating behaviours.

BACKGROUND: This study examined bidirectional relationships between maternal feeding practices and child food responsiveness and satiety responsiveness from 2 to 5 years. METHODS: Mothers (N = 207) reported their own feeding practices and child eating behaviours using validated questionnaires at child ages 2, 3.7, and 5 years. Cross-lagged analyses were conducted to test for bidirectional effects, adjusting for child BMI z-score (based on measured weight and height) at 14 months. RESULTS: Eating behaviours and feeding practices showed strong continuity across the three time points. Maternal feeding practices (higher reward for behaviour [ß = 0.12, p = 0.025] and lower covert restriction [ß = -0.14, p = 0.008]) were prospectively associated with higher food responsiveness. Conversely, increased child satiety responsiveness was primarily prospectively associated with mothers' feeding practices (increased structured meal timing [ß = 0.11, p = 0.038], overt [ß = 0.14, p = 0.010] and covert restriction [ß = 0.11, p = 0.022]). The only exception was family meal setting, which was prospectively negatively associated with satiety responsiveness (ß = -0.11, p = 0.035). CONCLUSION: While maternal feeding practices and child satiety and food responsiveness show strong continuity between child age 2 and 5 years, maternal feeding practices appear to be associated with child food responsiveness over time. Conversely, child satiety responsiveness, but not food responsiveness, may also be associated with maternal feeding practices over time. These results are consistent with interventions that provide feeding advice to parents on how to respond appropriately to individual child eating behaviour phenotype. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ACTRN12608000056392 . Registered 29 January 2008.

Is higher formula intake and limited dietary diversity in Australian children at 14 months of age associated with dietary quality at 24 months?

A varied and diverse diet in childhood supports optimum long-term preferences and growth. Previous analysis from 14-month-old Australian children in the NOURISH and South Australian Infants Dietary Intake (SAIDI) studies found higher formula intake was associated with lower dietary diversity. This analysis investigated whether formula intake and dietary diversity at 14 months of age is associated with dietary quality at 24 months. This is a secondary analysis of intake data from NOURISH and SAIDI cohorts. Scores for dietary diversity, fruit variety, vegetable variety and meat/alternative variety were combined using structural equation modelling to form the latent variable 'Dietary quality' (DQ) at age 24 months. A longitudinal model examined influence of formula (grams), cow's milk (grams) and dietary diversity at 14 months and covariates, on DQ. At age 24 months (n = 337) 27% of children obtained a maximum dietary diversity score (5/5). Variety scores were relatively low - with mean variety scores (and possible range) being four for fruit (0-30); five for vegetables (0-36); and three for meat/alternatives (0-8). Dietary diversity at 14 months (ß = 0.19, p = 0.001), maternal age (ß = 0.24, p < 0.001) and education (ß = 0.22, p < 0.001) predicted DQ at 24 months while Child Food Neophobia Score was negatively associated with DQ (ß = -0.30, p < 0.001). Formula intake was negatively associated with diversity at 14 months, but not DQ at 24. Diversity and variety were limited despite sociodemographic advantage of the sample. Diversity at 14 months, degree of neophobia and sociodemographic factors predicted DQ at 24 months. There is an ongoing need to emphasise the importance of repeated early exposure to healthy foods, such that children have the opportunity to learn to like a range of tastes and texture, thereby maximising dietary diversity and quality in infancy and early toddlerhood.

Measurement invariance of the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire-28 among a community of socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers and fathers.

OBJECTIVE: Determine whether feeding practices across mothers and fathers are interpreted and measured with equivalent accuracy (measurement invariance) using the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire-28 (FPSQ-28). DESIGN: Cross-sectional hard-copy and online survey design; Setting: Socioeconomically disadvantaged community in Queensland, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Mothers (n = 279) and fathers (n = 225) of 2- to 5-year old children. VARIABLES MEASURED: Parental feeding practices were measured using the 7 multi-item factors from the FPSQ-28. ANALYSIS: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied to evaluate the factor structure of the FPSQ-28 among mothers and fathers from a socioeconomically disadvantaged community. Measurement invariance between mothers and fathers was examined using hierarchical multi-group CFAs. RESULTS: The 7-factor FPSQ-28 model showed good fit and was invariant across parent gender. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The FPSQ-28 subscales appear to be interpreted equivalently, and thus to measure the same constructs, irrespective of the gender of the parents. The questionnaire can be used to measure or compare mothers' and fathers' self-reported feeding practices and examine influence on child health outcomes. In the current sample of mothers and fathers recruited from a socioeconomically disadvantaged community, mothers used more 'covert restriction' than fathers.

Appetitive traits associated with higher and lower body mass index: evaluating the validity of the adult eating behaviour questionnaire in an Australian sample.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this study were to evaluate the factor structure of the newly developed Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ) (Hunot et al., Appetite 105:356-63, 2016) in an Australian sample, and examine associations between the four food approach and four food avoidance appetitive traits with body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Participants (N = 998) recruited between May and October 2016 via a university research participation scheme and online social network sites completed an online version of the AEBQ and self-reported demographic and anthropometric data. Of the sample, 84.8% were females, 29.6% had completed a university degree and the overall mean age was 24.32 years (SD = 8.32). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test three alternative factor structures (derived from issues raised in the original development study): the original 8 factor model, a 7 factor model with Food Responsiveness and Hunger scales combined, and a 7 factor model with the Hunger scale removed. RESULTS: The CFA revealed that the original 8 factor model was a better fit to the data than the 7 factor model in which Food Responsiveness and Hunger scales were combined. However, while reliability estimates for 7 of the 8 scales were good (Cronbach's α between 0.70-0.86), the reliability of the Hunger scale was modest (0.67) and dropping this factor resulted in a good fitting model. All food avoidance scales (except Food Fussiness) were negatively associated with body mass index (BMI) whereas Emotional Overeating was the only food approach scale positively associated with BMI. CONCLUSIONS: The study supports the use of the AEBQ as a reliable and valid measure of food approach and avoidance appetitive traits in adults. Longitudinal studies that examine continuity and stability of appetitive traits across the lifespan will be facilitated by the addition of this measurement tool to the literature.