Isolation of Neuronal Synaptic Membranes by Sucrose Gradient Centrifugation.

Sucrose gradient centrifugation is a very useful technique for isolating specific membrane types based on their size and density. This is especially useful for detecting fatty acids and lipid molecules that are targeted to specialized membranes. Without fractionation, these types of molecules could be below the levels of detection after being diluted out by the more abundant lipid molecules with a more ubiquitous distribution throughout the various cell membranes. Isolation of specific membrane types where these lipids are concentrated allows for their detection and analysis. We describe herein our synaptic membrane isolation protocol that produces excellent yield and clear resolution of five major membrane fractions from a starting neural tissue homogenate: P1 (nuclear), P2 (cytoskeletal), P3 (neurosynaptosomal), PSD (post-synaptic densities), and SV (synaptic vesicle).

Angiogenesis Model of Cornea to Understand the Role of Sphingosine 1-Phosphate.

The bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) and its five cognate receptors (S1PR1-5) have been implicated to play important role in multiple aspects of human physiology and diseases. The S1P-S1PR1 signaling axis in endothelial cells is crucial for establishing flow competent blood vessels. The role of S1P in neovascular pathology is of great interest and is evolving as a promising target for treatment. Here we describe an easy and affordable in vivo model of corneal neovascularization using an alkali chemical burn to the cornea. This method gives a consistent and easy-to-quantitate procedure for neovascularization and angiogenesis studies.

Sphingosine Kinase-1 Is Essential for Maintaining External/Outer Limiting Membrane and Associated Adherens Junctions in the Aging Retina.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) produced by sphingosine kinases (SPHK1 and SPHK2) is a signaling molecule involved in cell proliferation and formation of cellular junctions. In this study, we characterized the retinas of Sphk1 knockout (KO) mice by electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry. We also tested cultured Müller glia for their response to S1P. We found that S1P plays an important role in retinal and retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) structural integrity in aging mice. Ultrastructural analysis of Sphk1 KO mouse retinas aged to 15 months or raised with moderate light stress revealed a degenerated outer limiting membrane (OLM). This membrane is formed by adherens junctions between neighboring Müller glia and photoreceptor cells. We also show that Sphk1 KO mice have reduced retinal function in mice raised with moderate light stress. In vitro assays revealed that exogenous S1P modulated cytoskeletal rearrangement and increased N-cadherin production in human Müller glia cells. Aged mice also had morphological degeneration of the RPE, as well as increased lipid storage vacuoles and undigested phagosomes reminiscent of RPE in age-related macular degeneration. These findings show that SPHK1 and S1P play a vital role in the structural maintenance of the mammalian retina and retinal pigmented epithelium by supporting the formation of adherens junctions.

Unravelling the interplay of sphingolipids and TGF-ß signaling in the human corneal stroma.

PURPOSE: To delineate the role of Sphingolipids (SPLs) in the human cornea and their cross-talks with transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) in order to develop novel, non-invasive therapies. METHODS: Human corneal fibroblasts (HCFs) were harvested from healthy donors, stimulated with Vitamin C to promote extracellular matrix assembly, treated with exogenous sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) or sphingosine kinase inhibitor 2 (SPHK I2) and isolated after 4 weeks for further analysis. RESULTS: Data showed that S1P led to a significant decrease in cellular migration where SPHK I2 just delayed it for 24h. Significant modulation of the sphingolipid pathway was also noted. Sphingosine kinase-1 (SphK1) was significantly downregulated upon exogenous stimulation with S1P at a concentration of 5µM and Sphingosine kinase-2 (SphK2) was also significantly downregulated at concentrations of 0.01µM, 0.1µM, and 5µM; whereas no effects were observed upon stimulation with SPHK I2. S1PR3 was significantly downregulated by 0.1µM and 5µM S1P and upregulated by 5µM and 10µM SPHK I2. Furthermore, both S1P and SPHK I2 regulated corneal fibrosis markers such as alpha-smooth muscle actin, collagen I, III, and V. We also investigated the interplay between two TGF-ß isoforms and S1P/SPHK I2 treatments and found that TGF-ß1 and TGF-ß3 were both significantly upregulated with the 0.1µM S1P but were significantly downregulated with the 5µM S1P concentration. When TGF-ß1 was compared directly to TGF-ß3 expression, we observed that TGF-ß3 was significantly downregulated compared to TGF-ß1 in the 5µM concentration of S1P. No changes were observed upon SPHK I2 treatment. CONCLUSION: Our study delineates the role of sphingolipids in the human cornea and highlights their different activities based on the cell/tissue type.

Isolation of Neuronal Synaptic Membranes by Sucrose Gradient Centrifugation.

Sucrose gradient centrifugation is a very useful technique for isolating specific membrane types based on their size and density. This is especially useful for detecting fatty acids and lipid molecules that are targeted to specialized membranes. Without fractionation, these types of molecules could be below the levels of detection after being diluted out by the more abundant lipid molecules with a more ubiquitous distribution throughout the various cell membranes. Isolation of specific membrane types where these lipids are concentrated allows for their detection and analysis. We describe herein our synaptic membrane isolation protocol that produces excellent yield and clear resolution of five major membrane fractions from a starting neural tissue homogenate: P1 (Nuclear), P2 (Cytoskeletal), P3 (Neurosynaptosomal), PSD (Post-synaptic Densities), and SV (Synaptic Vesicle).

Angiogenesis Model of Cornea to Understand the Role of Sphingosine 1-Phosphate.

The role of sphingolipids, mainly sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) and the receptors for which it serves as a ligand, is an interesting and promising area in both sphingolipid and vascular biology. S1P is crucial for establishing blood flow competent blood vessels (Jung et al. Dev Cell 23(3):600-610, 2012). The role of S1P in neovascular pathology is of great interest and promising as a target for treatment. Here we describe an easy and affordable in vivo model of neovascularization by an alkali chemical burn to the cornea. This gives a consistent and easy way to quantitate methods for neovascularization.

Analysis of sphingolipids in human corneal fibroblasts from normal and keratoconus patients.

The pathophysiology of human keratoconus (KC), a bilateral progressive corneal disease leading to protrusion of the cornea, stromal thinning, and scarring, is not well-understood. In this study, we investigated a novel sphingolipid (SPL) signaling pathway through which KC may be regulated. Using human corneal fibroblasts (HCFs) and human KC cells (HKCs), we examined the SPL pathway modulation. Both cell types were stimulated by the three transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß isoforms: TGF-ß1 (T1), TGF-ß2 (T2), and TGF-ß3 (T3). All samples were analyzed using lipidomics and real-time PCR. Our data showed that HKCs have increased levels of signaling SPLs, ceramide (Cer), and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P). Treatment with T1 reversed the increase in Cer in HKCs and treatment with T3 reversed the increase in S1P. S1P3 receptor mRNA levels were also significantly upregulated in HKCs, but were reduced to normal levels following T3 treatment. Furthermore, stimulation with Cer and S1P led to significant upregulation of fibrotic markers in HCFs, but not in HKCs. Additionally, stimulation with a Cer synthesis inhibitor (FTY720) led to significant downregulation of specific fibrotic markers in HKCs (TGF-ß1, collagen type III, and α smooth muscle actin) without an effect on healthy HCFs, suggesting a causative role of Cer and S1P in fibrogenesis. Overall, this study suggests an association of the SPL signaling pathway in KC disease and its relation with the TGF-ß pathway.

Sphingolipid profile alters in retinal dystrophic P23H-1 rats and systemic FTY720 can delay retinal degeneration.

Retinal degeneration (RD) affects millions of people and is a major cause of ocular impairment and blindness. With a wide range of mutations and conditions leading to degeneration, targeting downstream processes is necessary for developing effective treatments. Ceramide and sphingosine-1-phosphate, a pair of bioactive sphingolipids, are involved in apoptosis and its prevention, respectively. Apoptotic cell death is a potential driver of RD, and in order to understand the mechanism of degeneration and potential treatments, we studied rhodopsin mutant RD model, P23H-1 rats. Investigating this genetic model of human RD allows us to investigate the association of sphingolipid metabolites with the degeneration of the retina in P23H-1 rats and the effects of a specific modulator of sphingolipid metabolism, FTY720. We found that P23H-1 rat retinas had altered sphingolipid profiles that, when treated with FTY720, were rebalanced closer to normal levels. FTY720-treated rats also showed protection from RD compared with their vehicle-treated littermates. Based on these data, we conclude that sphingolipid dysregulation plays a secondary role in retinal cell death, which may be common to many forms of RDs, and that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved drug FTY720 or related compounds that modulate sphingolipid metabolism could potentially delay the cell death.

PBN (Phenyl-N-Tert-Butylnitrone)-Derivatives Are Effective in Slowing the Visual Cycle and Rhodopsin Regeneration and in Protecting the Retina from Light-Induced Damage.

A2E and related toxic molecules are part of lipofuscin found in the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in eyes affected by Stargardt's disease, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and other retinal degenerations. A novel therapeutic approach for treating such degenerations involves slowing down the visual cycle, which could reduce the amount of A2E in the RPE. This can be accomplished by inhibiting RPE65, which produces 11-cis-retinol from all-trans-retinyl esters. We recently showed that phenyl-N-tert-butylnitrone (PBN) inhibits RPE65 enzyme activity in RPE cells. In this study we show that like PBN, certain PBN-derivatives (PBNDs) such as 4-F-PBN, 4-CF3-PBN, 3,4-di-F-PBN, and 4-CH3-PBN can inhibit RPE65 and synthesis of 11-cis-retinol in in vitro assays using bovine RPE microsomes. We further demonstrate that systemic (intraperitoneal, IP) administration of these PBNDs protect the rat retina from light damage. Electroretinography (ERG) and histological analysis showed that rats treated with PBNDs retained ~90% of their photoreceptor cells compared to a complete loss of function and 90% loss of photoreceptors in the central retina in rats treated with vehicle/control injections. Topically applied PBN and PBNDs also significantly slowed the rate of the visual cycle in mouse and baboon eyes. One hour dark adaptation resulted in 75-80% recovery of bleachable rhodopsin in control/vehicle treated mice. Eye drops of 5% 4-CH3-PBN were most effective, inhibiting the regeneration of bleachable rhodopsin significantly (60% compared to vehicle control). In addition, a 10% concentration of PBN and 5% concentration of 4-CH3-PBN in baboon eyes inhibited the visual cycle by 60% and by 30%, respectively. We have identified a group of PBN related nitrones that can reach the target tissue (RPE) by systemic and topical application and slow the rate of rhodopsin regeneration and therefore the visual cycle in mouse and baboon eyes. PBNDs can also protect the rat retina from light damage. There is potential in developing these compounds as preventative therapeutics for the treatment of human retinal degenerations in which the accumulation of lipofuscin may be pathogenic.

Role of cystathionine beta synthase in lipid metabolism in ovarian cancer.

Elevated lipid metabolism is implicated in poor survival in ovarian cancer (OC) and other cancers; however, current lipogenesis-targeting strategies lack cancer cell specificity. Here, we identify a novel role of cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), a sulphur amino acid metabolizing enzyme highly expressed in several ovarian cancer cell lines, in driving deregulated lipid metabolism in OC. We examined the role of CBS in regulation of triglycerides, cholesterol and lipogenic enzymes via the lipogenic transcription factors SREBP1 and SREBP2. CBS silencing attenuated the expression of number of key enzymes involved in lipid synthesis (FASN and ACC1). Additionally CBS abrogates lipid uptake in OC cells. Gene silencing of CBS or SREBPs abrogated cellular migration and invasion in OC, while ectopic expression of SREBPs can rescue phenotypic effects of CBS silencing by restoring cell migration and invasion. Mechanistically, CBS represses SREBP1 and SREBP2 at the transcription levels by modulating the transcription factor Sp1. We further established the roles of both CBS and SREBPs in regulating ovarian tumor growth in vivo. In orthotopic tumor models, CBS or SREBP silencing resulted in reduced tumor cells proliferation, blood vessels formation and lipid content. Hence, cancer-selective disruption of the lipid metabolism pathway is possible by targeting CBS and, at least for OC, promises a profound benefit.

Sphingolipids in ocular inflammation.

Sphingolipids are essential to cell membrane structure and the development and maintenance of neural tissues. The role of bioactive sphingolipids has been established in numerous cellular events, including cell survival, growth, and apoptosis. Ocular inflammatory and autoimmune diseases involve activation and migration of endothelial cells, neovascularization, and infiltration of immune cells into various tissues. Clinically, the impact and role of sphingolipid-mediated signaling is increasingly being appreciated in the pathogenesis and treatment of diseases ranging from multiple sclerosis to neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge and understanding of sphingolipid metabolism and signaling associated with the pathogenesis of ocular diseases.

In vivo effect of mutant ELOVL4 on the expression and function of wild-type ELOVL4.

PURPOSE: Mutations in the elongation of very long chain fatty acids 4 (ELOVL4) gene cause human Stargardt's macular dystrophy 3 (STGD3), a juvenile onset dominant form of macular degeneration. To understand the role of the ELOVL4 protein in retinal function, several mouse models have been developed by using transgenic (TG), knock-in (Elovl4(+/mut)), and knockout (Elovl4(+/-)) approaches. Here we analyzed quantitatively the ELOVL4 protein and its enzymatic products (very long chain saturated fatty acid [VLC-FA] and VLC-polyunsaturated fatty acid [VLC-PUFA]) in the retinas of 8 to 10-week-old TG1(+), TG2(+), and Elovl4(+/mut) mice that harbor the mutant ELOVL4 and compared them to their wild-type littermates and Elovl4(+/-) that do not express the mutant protein. We also analyzed skin from these mice to gain insight into the pathogenesis resulting from the ELOVL4 mutation. METHODS: ELOVL4 protein localization in the retina was determined by immunohistochemistry. Levels of wild-type ELOVL4 protein in skin and retinas were determined by Western blotting. Total lipids from skin and retinas were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Retinal glycerophosphatidylcholines (PC) were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Immunohistochemical and Western analysis indicated that wild-type ELOVL4 protein was reduced in heterozygous Elovl4(+/mut) and Elovl4(+/-) retinas, but not in TG2(+) retinas. We found that VLC-FA was reduced by 50% in the skin of Elovl4(+/-) and by 60% to 65% in Elovl4(+/mut). We found VLC-PUFA levels at ∼ 50% in both the retinas, and wild-type levels of VLC-PUFA in TG2(+) retinas. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the presence of the mutant ELOVL4 does not affect the function of wild-type ELOVL4 in the fully developed 8- to 10-week-old retinas.

Beyond the cherry-red spot: Ocular manifestations of sphingolipid-mediated neurodegenerative and inflammatory disorders.

Sphingolipids are a ubiquitous membrane lipid present in every cell and found most abundantly in neural tissues. Disorders such as Tay-Sachs or Niemann-Pick disease are the most familiar examples of dysfunction in sphingolipid metabolism and are typically associated with neurodegeneration and ocular findings such as blindness. More recently, the role of bioactive sphingolipids has been established in a multitude of cellular events, including cell survival, growth, senescence and apoptosis, inflammation, and neovascularization. We discuss our current knowledge and understanding of sphingolipid metabolism and signaling in the pathogenesis of ocular diseases.

Botanical compounds: effects on major eye diseases.

Botanical compounds have been widely used throughout history as cures for various diseases and ailments. Many of these compounds exhibit strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties. These are also common damaging mechanisms apparent in several ocular diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, cataract, and retinitis pigmentosa. In recent years, there have been many epidemiological and clinical studies that have demonstrated the beneficial effects of plant-derived compounds, such as curcumin, lutein and zeaxanthin, danshen, ginseng, and many more, on these ocular pathologies. Studies in cell cultures and animal models showed promising results for their uses in eye diseases. While there are many apparent significant correlations, further investigation is needed to uncover the mechanistic pathways of these botanical compounds in order to reach widespread pharmaceutical use and provide noninvasive alternatives for prevention and treatments of the major eye diseases.

Specific sphingolipid content decrease in Cerkl knockdown mouse retinas.

Sphingolipids (SPLs) are finely tuned structural compounds and bioactive molecules involved in membrane fluidity and cellular homeostasis. The core sphingolipid, ceramide (CER), and its derivatives, regulate several crucial processes in neuronal cells, among them cell differentiation, cell-cell interactions, membrane conductance, synaptic transmission, and apoptosis. Mutations in Ceramide Kinase-Like (CERKL) cause autosomal recessive Retinitis Pigmentosa and Cone Rod Dystrophy. The presence of a conserved lipid kinase domain and the overall similarity with CERK suggested that CERKL might play a role in the SPL metabolism as a CER kinase. Unfortunately, CERKL function and substrate(s), as well as its contribution to the retinal etiopathology, remain as yet unknown. In this work we aimed to characterize the mouse retinal sphingolipidome by UPLC-TOF to first, thoroughly investigate the SPL composition of the murine retina, compare it to our Cerkl -/- model, and finally assess new possible CERKL substrates by phosphorus quantification and protein-lipid overlay. Our results showed a consistent and notable decrease of the retinal SPL content (mainly ranging from 30% to 60%) in the Cerkl -/- compared to WT retinas, which was particularly evident in the glucosyl/galactosyl ceramide species (Glc/GalCer) whereas the phospholipids and neutral lipids remained unaltered. Moreover, evidence in favor of CERKL binding to GlcCer, GalCer and sphingomyelin has been gathered. Altogether, these results highlight the involvement of CERKL in the SPL metabolism, question its role as a kinase, and open new scenarios concerning its function.

Deciphering mutant ELOVL4 activity in autosomal-dominant Stargardt macular dystrophy.

Autosomal-dominant Stargardt-like macular dystrophy [Stargardt3 (STGD3)] results from single allelic mutations in the elongation of very-long-chain fatty acids-like 4 (ELOVL4), whereas recessive mutations lead to skin and brain dysfunction. ELOVL4 protein localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum, where it mediates the condensation reaction catalyzing the formation of very-long-chain (VLC) (C-28 to C-40) fatty acids, saturated and polyunsaturated (PUFA). The defective gene product is truncated at the C terminus, leading to mislocalization and aggregation in other organelles. We hypothesized that the STGD3 truncated mutant may generate mislocalized, and therefore toxic, keto intermediates of fatty acid elongation, thereby contributing to the disease process. Using cell-based and cell-free microsome assays, we found that the truncated protein lacked innate condensation activity. Coexpression of different forms of wild-type and mutant ELOVL4 revealed a large dominant-negative effect of mutant protein on ELOVL4 localization and enzymatic activity, resulting in reduced VLC-PUFA synthesis. The reduction in VLC-PUFA levels in STGD3 and age-related macular degeneration may be a contributing factor to their retinal pathology.

Inhibition of de novo ceramide biosynthesis by FTY720 protects rat retina from light-induced degeneration.

Light-induced retinal degeneration (LIRD) in albino rats causes apoptotic photoreceptor cell death. Ceramide is a second messenger for apoptosis. We tested whether increases in ceramide mediate photoreceptor apoptosis in LIRD and if inhibition of ceramide synthesis protects the retina. Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 2,700 lux white light for 6 h, and the retinal levels of ceramide and its intermediary metabolites were measured by GC-MS or electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Enzymes of the de novo biosynthetic and sphingomyelinase pathways of ceramide generation were assayed, and gene expression was measured. The dosage and temporal effect of the ceramide synthase inhibitor FTY720 on the LIRD retina were measured by histological and functional analyses. Retinal ceramide levels increased coincident with the increase of dihydroceramide at various time points after light stress. Light stress in retina induces ceramide generation predominantly through the de novo pathway, which was prevented by systemic administration of FTY720 (10 mg/kg) leading to the protection of retinal structure and function. The neuroprotection of FTY720 was independent of its immunosuppressive action. We conclude that ceramide increase by de novo biosynthesis mediates photoreceptor apoptosis in the LIRD model and that inhibition of ceramide production protects the retina against light stress.

Expression and localization of CERKL in the mammalian retina, its response to light-stress, and relationship with NeuroD1 gene.

Mutations in the Ceramide kinase like (CERKL) gene are associated with retinitis pigmentosa (RP26) and cone-rod dystrophy. CERKL is homologous to Ceramide kinase (CERK), and its function is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to test the expression and distribution of this gene and its protein in rat and in mouse tissues, in light-stressed rat retinas and in the retinas of NeuroD1 knock-out mice to understand the role of CERKL in the retina. Expression of Cerkl and Cerk mRNA was determined by quantitative RT-PCR. Expression of the protein was determined by Western blotting with anti-CERKL antibody. Localization of the protein was determined by using immunofluorescence microscopy. With qRT-PCR, we revealed that the relative mRNA expression of Cerkl was the highest in the retina among all the rat tissue tested; it was >10-fold higher than in the brain. On the other hand, Cerk has ubiquitous expression and its relative abundance is >2 fold of Cerkl in the retina. Cerkl was expressed minimally in the developing mouse eyes and reached a peak at retinal maturity at 2 months. Western blots of retinal tissues revealed two major CERKL protein bands: 59 kDa (C1) and 37 kDa (C2). However, only C2 CERKL was found in the rat retinal rod outer segment (ROS) at level of that was not changed in light vs. dark adaptation. In the light-stressed retina, expression of Cerkl mRNA increased significantly, which was reflected in only on C2 CERKL protein. The CERKL protein localized prominently to the ganglion cells, inner nuclear layers (INL), retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, and photoreceptor inner segments in the retinal sections. Nuclear localization of CERKL was not affected in RPE, INL and the ganglion cell layers in the light-stressed retina; however, the perinuclear and outer segment locations appear to be altered. In the NeuroD1 knock-out mouse retina, the expression of Cerkl mRNA and protein decreased and that decrease also pertains to C2 CERKL. In conclusion, the retina had the highest level of Cerkl mRNA and protein expression, which reached its maximum in the adult retina; CERKL localized to ROS and RPE cells and the light-adaptation did not change the level of CERKL in ROS; light-stress induced Cerkl expression in the retina; and its expression decreased in NeuroD1 knock-out retina. Thus, CERKL may be important for the stress responses and protection of photoreceptor cells.

Retinol dehydrogenases RDH11 and RDH12 in the mouse retina: expression levels during development and regulation by oxidative stress.

PURPOSE: RDH11 and RDH12 are closely related retinol dehydrogenases expressed in the retina. RDH12 has been linked to the early-onset retinal dystrophy Leber congenital amaurosis, whereas RDH11 has not been associated with human disease. To understand their physiological roles, the authors investigated their expression during development and their regulation by light-induced oxidative stress in mouse retina. METHODS: Quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblot analysis were used for quantification of RDH11 and RDH12 during development and oxidative stress. Expression during development was measured between embryonic day (E) 12 and postnatal day (P) 210 (7 months) in C57BL/6 mouse eyes. Expression during light-induced oxidative stress was measured between 2 and 24 hours of exposure to light in BALB/c mouse retina. RESULTS: The RDH11 level was low and remarkably constant during development and oxidative stress. RDH12 expression started at P7 and increased until P30 to approximately sevenfold higher than RDH11. Oxidative stress induced by exposure to constant bright light led to a rapid and significant decrease of RDH12 protein. CONCLUSIONS: The low and constant expression of RDH11 suggested a housekeeping function for this enzyme. The onset of RDH12 expression during the maturation of photoreceptor cells suggested a function related to the visual process. The light-induced rapid decrease of RDH12 protein, preceding the decrease of the mRNA, suggested a specific degradation of the protein rather than a regulation of gene expression.