Three reasons why parental burnout is more prevalent in individualistic countries: a mediation study in 36 countries.

PURPOSE: The prevalence of parental burnout, a condition that has severe consequences for both parents and children, varies dramatically across countries and is highest in Western countries characterized by high individualism. METHOD: In this study, we examined the mediators of the relationship between individualism measured at the country level and parental burnout measured at the individual level in 36 countries (16,059 parents). RESULTS: The results revealed three mediating mechanisms, that is, self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, high agency and self-directed socialization goals, and low parental task sharing, by which individualism leads to an increased risk of burnout among parents. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that the three mediators under consideration are all involved, and that mediation was higher for self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, then parental task sharing, and lastly self-directed socialization goals. The results provide some important indications of how to prevent parental burnout at the societal level in Western countries.

Differences in family functioning before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: an observational study in Peruvian families.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a major impact on family relationships, as several families have lost family members due to COVID-19 pandemic and become physically and emotionally estranged due to lockdown measures and critically economic periods. Our study contrasted two hypotheses: (1) family functioning changed notably before and after the COVID-19 pandemic initiation in terms of cohesion, flexibility, communication and satisfaction; (2) balanced families have a greater capacity to strictly comply with quarantine (i.e., social confinement), compared to unbalanced families. We performed an observational study comparing family functioning between two independent groups, evaluated before and during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru. A total of 7,980 participants were included in the study. For the first hypothesis, we found that, during the pandemic, families became more balanced in terms of cohesion (adjusted before-during mean difference or ß1 = 1.4; 95% CI [1.0-1.7]) and flexibility (ß2 = 2.0; 95% CI [1.6-2.4]), and families were less disengaged (ß3 = -1.9; 95% CI [-2.3 to -1.5]) and chaotic (ß4 = -2.9; 95% CI [-3.3 to -2.4]). Regarding the second hypothesis, we confirmed that families with balanced cohesion (adjusted prevalence ratio or aPR = 1.16; 95% CI [1.12-1.19) and flexibility (aPR = 1.23; 95% CI [1.18-1.27]) allowed greater compliance with quarantine restrictions; while disengaged (aPR = 0.91; 95% CI [0.88-0.93]) and chaotic families (aPR = 0.89; 95% CI [0.87-0.92]) were more likely to partially comply or not comply with the quarantine. Finally, family communication (aPR = 1.17; 95% CI [1.11-1.24]) and satisfaction (aPR = 1.18; 95% CI [1.11-1.25]) also played a role in favouring quarantine compliance. This new evidence enlightens the family systems theory while informing future interventions for improving compliance with quarantine measures in the context of social confinement.

When COVID-19 strikes mental health: a measurement analysis of reassurance seeking behavior scale in Peruvian population.

Background: The long-lasting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic cannot be overstated. To combat its dire consequences, some screening measures have been hastily developed and require robust verification to explore their adequacy across different groups. The present research study aimed to analyze measurement invariance by sociodemographic characteristics of the Coronavirus Reassurance Seeking Behavior Scale (CRSB) in Peruvian adults. Methods: A total of 661 participants completed The Coronavirus Reassurance Seeking Behavior Scale (CRSB), the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS), and sociodemographic information a subgroup filled in the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Reliability and measurement invariance across sociodemographic characteristics were analyzed. Likewise, associations with depression and dysfunctional coronavirus anxiety were examined. Results: Results showed that the single factor structure of the CRSB with correlated errors fitted the data adequately and the instrument was invariant across gender, age, and loss of a significant relative to COVID-19. In addition, significant associations with depressive symptoms and dysfunctional anxiety were found. Conclusion: The findings of the present study suggest that the Coronavirus Reassurance Seeking Behaviors Scale is invariant across different sociodemographic characteristics.

The Importance of the 5Cs of Positive Youth Development to Depressive Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Study with University Students from Peru and Spain.

BACKGROUND: Prior research has documented the protective role of the 5Cs of Positive Youth Development (PYD) on adjustment problems, such as depressive symptoms. Nonetheless, more research is needed, especially in non-US contexts. The main objective of the present study was to assess associations between the 5Cs and depressive symptoms in Peru and Spain, considering gender differences across contexts. METHODS: Cross-sectional data was collected from undergraduate students from Peru [n = 250] and Spain [n = 1044]. RESULTS: The results revealed significant negative associations of Competence, Confidence, Character and Connection with depressive symptoms, while Caring was positively and significantly related to depressive symptoms in both samples. Regarding gender differences, female undergraduates in both samples reported high levels of Caring, while Competence was predominant among males compared to females in both countries. Likewise, higher scores in Competence and Confidence were registered among Peruvian male undergraduates compared to Spanish students, while Caring and Character were more prevalent in Spanish female undergraduates compared to Peruvian students. CONCLUSIONS: These findings confirm the importance of targeting the 5Cs of PYD alongside the role of gender and country context in intervention programs, put together to address the mental health of students in Peru and Spain.

Mating Performance and Singlehood Across 14 Nations.

Adult individuals frequently face difficulties in attracting and keeping mates, which is an important driver of singlehood. In the current research, we investigated the mating performance (i.e., how well people do in attracting and retaining intimate partners) and singlehood status in 14 different countries, namely Austria, Brazil, China, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Peru, Poland, Russia, Spain, Turkey, the UK, and Ukraine (N = 7,181). We found that poor mating performance was in high occurrence, with about one in four participants scoring low in this dimension, and more than 57% facing difficulties in starting and/or keeping a relationship. Men and women did not differ in their mating performance scores, but there was a small yet significant effect of age, with older participants indicating higher mating performance. Moreover, nearly 13% of the participants indicated that they were involuntarily single, which accounted for about one-third of the singles in the sample. In addition, more than 15% of the participants indicated that they were voluntarily single, and 10% were between-relationships single. We also found that poor mating performance was associated with an increased likelihood of voluntary, involuntary, and between-relationships singlehood. All types of singlehood were in higher occurrence in younger participants. Although there was some cross-cultural variation, the results were generally consistent across samples.

Reappraisal, social support, and parental burnout.

OBJECTIVES: Parental burnout is a prevalent condition that affects parents' functioning and health. While various protective factors have been examined, little is known about their interplay. In the current study, we examined the joint effect of two protective factors against parental burnout (one external-social support and one internal-cognitive reappraisal). We were specifically interested in whether the presence of one factor could compensate for the lack of the other. METHODS: To address this question, 1835 participants were drawn from five countries: United States, Poland, Peru, Turkey and Belgium. RESULTS: Results suggested that both social support and cognitive reappraisal were associated with lower parental burnout. An interaction was also found between the resource factors, such that the presence of cognitive reappraisal compensated for the absence of social support. CONCLUSIONS: These findings point to ways in which parental burnout could be reduced, especially in situations where social support is not easily available.

Análisis psicométrico del Cuestionario de ción Conductual de las Emociones en universitarios peruanos / Psychometric analysis of the Behavioral Regulation of Emotions Questionnaire in Peruvian university students

Resumen La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo traducir e identificar las propiedades psicométricas del Behavioral Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (BERQ) en 315 universitarios de Lima, Perú, entre los 16 y 44 años (M edad = 21.31; DE edad = 3.39; 59.7 % hombres). Para la evaluación se aplicó el BERQ y el Inventario Multicultural de Depresión Estado Rasgo (IMÜDER), y las evidencias de validez de la estructura interna se obtuvieron por medio de un análisis factorial confirmatorio y un modelamiento exploratorio de ecuaciones estructurales, mientras que las evidencias de validez en relación con otras variables se obtuvieron a través de un análisis de regresión lineal. Los resultados indican que la estructura pentafactorial se replica en la muestra peruana, que las estrategias adaptativas predicen significativamente el eutrés, y que las estrategias desadaptativas predicen el distrés; además, los valores de confiabilidad fueron aceptables. Al final se discuten aspectos teóricos y prácticos de los hallazgos y la importancia de continuar brindando evidencia para su utilización en diferentes poblaciones y contextos, teniendo en cuenta que esta la primera vez que se analiza una versión en español del BERQ.

Abstract The present study aimed to translate and identify the psychometric properties of the Behavioral Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (BERQ) in 315 university students from Lima, Peru, aged 16 to 44 years (Mage = 21.31; SD = 3.39; 59.7% male). The BERQ and the Multicultural Inventory of Trait State Depression (IMUDER) were administered for the assessment. Evidence of internal structure validity was obtained through confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling, while evidence of validity in relation to other variables was obtained through linear regression analysis. The results indicate that the pentafactorial structure is replicated in the Peruvian sample; that adaptive strategies significantly predict eutres, and that maladaptive strategies predict distress; in addition, reliability values were acceptable. At the end, theoretical and practical aspects of the findings and the importance of continuing to provide evidence for its use in different populations and contexts are discussed, taking into account that this is the first time that a Spanish version of the BERQ has been analyzed.

Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) in Different Hispanic Countries: An Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling Approach.

Parental burnout is a unique and context-specific syndrome resulting from a chronic imbalance of risks over resources in the parenting domain. The current research aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) across Spanish-speaking countries with two consecutive studies. In Study 1, we analyzed the data through a bifactor model within an Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) on the pooled sample of participants (N = 1,979) obtaining good fit indices. We then attained measurement invariance across both gender and countries in a set of nested models with gradually increasing parameter constraints. Latent means comparisons across countries showed that among the participants' countries, Chile had the highest parental burnout score, likewise, comparisons across gender evidenced that mothers displayed higher scores than fathers, as shown in previous studies. Reliability coefficients were high. In Study 2 (N = 1,171), we tested the relations between parental burnout and three specific consequences, i.e., escape and suicidal ideations, parental neglect, and parental violence toward one's children. The medium to large associations found provided support for the PBA's predictive validity. Overall, we concluded that the Spanish version of the PBA has good psychometric properties. The results support its relevance for the assessment of parental burnout among Spanish-speaking parents, offering new opportunities for cross-cultural research in the parenting domain.

Invariance of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Construct Across Clinical Populations and Sociodemographic Variables.

Recent research has shown that cultural, linguistic, and sociodemographic peculiarities influence the measurement of trait emotional intelligence (trait EI). Assessing trait EI in different populations fosters cross-cultural research and expands the construct's nomological network. In mental health, the trait EI of clinical populations has been scarcely researched. Accordingly, the present study examined the relationship between trait EI and key sociodemographic variables on Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF) datasets with mental healthcare patients from three different Spanish-speaking countries. Collectively, these datasets comprised 528 participants, 23% from Chile (120), 28% from Peru (150), and 49% from Spain (258). The sociodemographic variables we used for trait EI comparisons were gender, age, educational level, civil status, and occupational status. Analyses involved Multigroup Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (to test measurement invariance) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Our results revealed significant between-country differences in trait EI across the studied sociodemographic variables and interactions between these variables. Measurement invariance across the datasets was attained up to the scalar level regarding gender and education (i.e., strong invariance), although analyses on age, civil status, and occupation displayed non-invariance. The resultant psychometric evidence supports the suitability of the TEIQue-SF for the accurate cross-cultural assessment of trait EI in mental health settings. It also highlights the importance of incorporating trait EI into extant psychotherapeutic frameworks to enhance non-pharmacological treatment efficacy.

Facebook Intrusion as a Mediator Between Positive Capital and General Distress: A Cross-Cultural Study.

Background: Social networking sites (SNSs) play an important role in many aspects of life nowadays, and it seems to be crucial to explore their impact on human well-being and functioning. The main aim of the study was to examine the mediating role of Facebook intrusion between positive capital and general distress. Positive capital was considered as comprising self-esteem, ego-resiliency, and self-control, while general distress was seen as having three dimensions: depression, anxiety, and stress. Methods: The sample consisted of N = 4,495 participants (M = 22.96 years, SD = 5.46) from 14 countries: Australia, Cyprus, Greece, Hong Kong, Lithuania, New Zealand, Peru, Poland, Russia, Spain, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. We used the following methods: the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire (FIQ), the Self-Esteem Scale (SES), the Brief Self-Control Scale (SCS), The Ego Resiliency Revised Scale and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). Results: We found that Facebook intrusion was a mediator between self-esteem and general distress and between self-control and general distress. Limitations: The present study was based on a cross-sectional study, and the measures used were self-report measures. The majority of the participants were recruited using convenience sampling. Conclusions: The present findings contribute to a better understanding on how the social media have impact on individual mental health. Implications for future studies are discussed.

Association Between Substance Use Behaviors, Developmental Assets and Mental Health: A Glance at Latin American Young College Students.

Positive Youth Development (PYD) is an approach that promotes resilience and focuses on youth strengths rather than their weaknesses as done by the traditional deficit-based perspective. Research in Europe and North America show that developmental assets are associated with school success, psychological well-being, and lower health risks among youth and young adults. However, not much research has been done on these associations in Latin American contexts. The purpose of this research study is to assess the association between substance use behaviors, such as drunkenness and the use of illicit drugs, and mental health, together with the mediating role of developmental assets representing youth strengths (e.g., social competence) and contextual resources (e.g., social support at home or school). Cross-national data was collected from Colombian (n = 210; 70.4% females) and Peruvian (n = 349; 66.5% females) 1st year university students. Results shed light on the protective role of developmental assets regarding substance use behaviors and mental well-being. Specifically, the results showed direct negative associations between developmental assets and substance use behaviors and positive associations of developmental assets with mental health indicators. Internal assets appear to be a stronger predictor of social, emotional, and psychological well-being compared to external assets. We did not find any statistical significance in the association of substance use behavior and mental health. We discuss implications regarding research, policy, and practice.

The SISCO Inventory of Academic Stress: Examination of its psychometric properties in a Peruvian sample / El Inventario de Estrés Académico SISCO: análisis de sus propiedades psicométricas en una muestra peruana

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of the SISCO Inventory of Academic Stress in a Peruvian population. METHOD: Information was obtained from 628 college students belonging to private and public universities. The standard three-dimensional model and a five-factor model were tested by means of confirmatory factor analyses. Furthermore, reliability, measurement invariance across gender and validity related to other variables (perceived social support and academic procrastination) was inspected. RESULTS: Models fitted the data adequately and the instrument was invariant across genders. In addition, an adequate reliability index was confirmed and significant associations with related variables were found. CONCLUSIONS: The current findings reveal that the SISCO Inventory of Academic Stress shows evidence of validity and reliability in Peruvian undergraduate students

OBJETIVO: El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar las propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Estrés Académico SISCO en una muestra peruana. MÉTODO: Se obtuvo información de 628 estudiantes universitarios pertenecientes a universidades privadas y públicas. Dos modelos fueron evaluados mediante análisis factorial confirmatorio: el modelo tridimensional estándar y un modelo de cinco factores. Además, se analizó la confiabilidad, la invariancia factorial en función del género y la validez relacionada con otras variables (apoyo social percibido y procrastinación académica). RESULTADOS: Los modelos se ajustaron adecuadamente a los datos y el instrumento probó ser invariante entre varones y mujeres. Además, se confirmó un índice de confiabilidad adecuado y se encontraron asociaciones significativas con variables relacionadas. CONCLUSIONES: Los hallazgos actuales revelan que el Inventario de Estrés Académico SISCO muestra evidencias de validez y confiabilidad en estudiantes universitarios peruanos

Datos normativos de una escala de agotamiento emocional académico en estudiantes universitarios de psicología de Lima (Perú) / Normative data of an emotional exhaustion scale in psychology college students from Lima (Perú)

OBJETIVO: El objetivo del presente trabajo fue obtener datos normativos de la Escala de Cansancio Emocional en estudiantes de psicología de 3 universidades privadas de Lima. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Esta investigación se llevó a cabo con una muestra de 1.102 estudiantes de psicología (77% mujeres) de entre 16 y 56 años (M = 21,09; DE = 4,570). Fueron utilizadas la Escala de Cansancio Emocional, la Escala de Autoeficacia Percibida Específica de Situaciones Académicas, el Patient Health Questionnarie-2 y la Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2. Fue implementado un análisis factorial de grupo múltiple para el análisis de invarianza, el cálculo de percentiles para la elaboración de los baremos y los análisis comparativos fueron ejecutados con la t de Student y ANOVA, acompañados con medidas de magnitud del efecto. RESULTADOS: La invarianza de medición recibió evidencia favorable y los indicadores de confiabilidad (alfa, omega y eta) fueron adecuados. Las puntuaciones de la Escala de Cansancio Emocional no se aproximan a la normalidad, y por ello los baremos se elaboraron con base en percentiles. Los puntos de corte poseen una confiabilidad elevada, y las categorías obtenidas tienen una buena capacidad discriminativa en contraste con criterios externos (autoeficacia académica, ansiedad y depresión). Finalmente, la diferencia hallada entre varones y mujeres carece de significación práctica. CONCLUSIONES: Con base en la evidencia presentada, los baremos elaborados son útiles para estudios relacionados con la prevalencia del agotamiento emocional, y pueden ser utilizados tanto en varones como en mujeres

OBJECTIVE: The main objective of the present study was to obtain normative data from the Emotional Exhaustion Scale in psychology students from three private universities in Lima. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This research study was carried out with a sample of 1,102 psychology students (77% females) age ranged between 16 and 56 years (M = 21.09; SD = 4.570). The instruments used to measure the constructs were: the Emotional Exhaustion Scale, the Scale of Specific Perceived Self-Efficacy of Academic Situations, the Patient Health Questionnaire-2, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2. In order to test measurement invariance a multi-group confirmatory factor analyses was conducted, likewise, the computation of percentiles, effect size and comparative analyses by means of T-Test and ANOVA were performed. RESULTS: There was evidence of measurement invariance and the reliability coefficients (alpha, Omega and Eta) were adequate. The Emotional Exhaustion Scale scores are non-normal distributed, and so the scale was elaborated on the basis of percentiles. Cut-off points have high reliability, and the categories obtained have good discriminative capacity in association with external criteria (academic self-efficacy, anxiety and depression). Finally, we did not find any practical significance among men and women. CONCLUSION: Based on the evidence presented, the elaborated scales are useful for studies related to the prevalence of emotional exhaustion, and can be used in both men and women

Parenting, Socioeconomic Status and Psychosocial Functioning in Peruvian Families and their Children / Crianza, Nivel Socioeconómico y Funcionamiento Psicosocial en Familias Peruanas y sus Niños

El objetivo de este artículo es analizar la relación entre dos dimensiones de crianza (crianza positiva y control negativo del comportamiento) y factores psicosociales infantiles (auto-valía y problemas de conducta). Se investigó (a) si el nivel socioeconómico moderaba la relación entre crianza y el funcionamiento psicosocial del niño, (b) si la crianza actuaba como mediador en la relación entre nivel socioeconómico y el funcionamiento psicosocial, por último, (c) si existían efectos de interacción entre crianza positiva y control negativo del comportamiento. La información fue obtenida de 591 niños peruanos y sus familias en zonas urbanas de Lima Metropolitana. Se utilizó Análisis de Regresión Múltiple Jerárquica con el fin de investigar los efectos directos e indirectos (mediación y moderación). Los resultados revelaron un efecto mediador de crianza positiva y control negativo del comportamiento en la relación entre el nivel socioeconómico y la auto-valía. Se discuten implicaciones sobre el importante rol desempeñado por el contexto

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relation between two dimensions of parenting (Positive Parenting and Negative Behavioral Control) and child psychosocial functioning, such as self-worth and problem behavior. We investigated (a) whether socioeconomic status moderates the relationship between parenting and child psychosocial outcomes, (b) whether parenting mediates the relation between socioeconomic status and psychosocial functioning in a Peruvian context and finally, (c) whether there are interaction effects between positive parenting and negative behavioral control. Information was gathered on 591 Peruvian children and their families from the normal population in urban zones of Metropolitan Lima. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate direct and indirect effects (mediation and moderation). Results revealed a significant mediation effect of positive parenting and negative behavioral control in the relationship between socioeconomic status and self-worth. Implications about the role played by context are discussed

Relationship among Parenting Behavior, SES, Academic Achievement and Psychosocial Functioning in Peruvian Children / Relación entre el comportamiento parental, SES, logro académico y funcionamiento psicosocial en niños peruanos

This study addresses how Negative Parental Control (NPC) and Positive Parenting (PP) are associated with achievement in spelling, arithmetic or reading, socio-economic status (SES) and psychosocial factors such as self-worth (SW) and behavioral problems (BP). The sample is formed by 587 children attending 6th grade of regular primary school and their families living in the urban zones of Metropolitan Lima, Peru. Structural Equation Modeling was used to analyze the hypothesized relations. Four models were built combining parenting dimensions and psychosocial factors. All models showed a good fit. Results showed a strong positive relationship between SES and achievement, and between SES and parenting. Strong associations between psychosocial factors and achievement were found. Implications are discussed about the role of SES on families and achievement but also about the role of parenting in children's psychosocial functioning.

Este estudio aborda cómo el Control Parental Negativo (NPC) y la Crianza Positiva (PP) están asociados con el logro en la ortografía, aritmética o la lectura, el nivel socioeconómico (SES) y factores psicosociales como selfworth (SW) y problemas de conducta (BP). La muestra estuvo formada por 587 niños que asistían a sexto grado de la escuela primaria regular y sus familias que viven en las zonas urbanas de Lima Metropolitana, Perú. Se utilizó el modelo de ecuaciones estructurales para analizar las relaciones hipotéticas. Se construyeron cuatro modelos que combinan dimensiones parentales y factores psicosociales. Todos los modelos mostraron un buen ajuste. Los resultados mostraron una relación positiva alta entre el SES y el logro, y entre SES y la crianza de los hijos. Se encontraron asociaciones fuertes entre los factores psicosociales y de logro. Se discuten las implicaciones sobre el papel de SES en las familias y los logros además del papel de la crianza de los hijos en el funcionamiento psicosocial de los niños.

Associations between Psychosocial Functioning and Academic Achievement: The Peruvian Case / Asociaciones entre funcionamiento psicosocial y rendimiento académico: el caso peruano

This study investigated (a) how specific aspects of psychosocial functioning (behavioral problems and global self-worth) are associated with academic achievement in spelling, arithmetic and reading; and (b) what is the effect of type of school (private vs. public) on this association. The sample for this study consisted of 901 regular school children attending 6th grade of primary education, living in the urban zones of Metropolitan Lima, Peru. Our research hypotheses were partially corroborated. The results showed a strong relationship between academic achievement and psychosocial functioning, with an important role of gender and school failure at the student level. Nevertheless, we could not confirm our multilevel assumption. There is no evidence that this relationship differs among schools. Practical implications are discussed.

Este estudio investigó: (a) como los aspectos específicos del funcionamiento psicosocial (problemas de comportamiento y autoestima en general) son asociados con el logro académico en la ortografía, aritmética y lectura, y (b) cuál es el efecto del tipo de escuela (privada o pública) de esta asociación. La muestra de este estudio consistió en 901 niños de escuelas regulares que asisten a sexto grado de educación primaria, que viven en las zonas urbanas de Lima, Perú. Nuestra hipótesis de investigación fue corroborada parcialmente. Los resultados mostraron una fuerte relación entre el rendimiento académico y el funcionamiento psicosocial, con un papel importante de género y el fracaso escolar en el nivel de los estudiantes. Sin embargo, no se pudo confirmar nuestra hipótesis de multinivel. No hay evidencia de que esta relación difiera entre las escuelas. Se discuten las implicaciones prácticas.

Academic performance of peruvian elementary school children: The case of schools in Lima at the 6th grade

Education is in general the basis for development in any country in the world. In the education al field, several international assessments (Pisa, 2006) reflect the great gap that yet subsists among developing countries, in which the case of Peru is not an exception. There have been many national and international academic achievement evaluations that examine the skills and knowledge of students not only in Peru but also in other Latin American countries in different academic domains. One of these examples is the Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (LLECE), in which Peru participated, in order to evaluate and compare the performance achieved by Latin American students of 3rd and 6th grade in core areas like Language, Mathematics, and Natural Sciences. Peru ranks, together with other Latin countries, with scores below the average (Regional Office for Education of UNESCO, 2008). The low ranking of the Peruvian educational system carries heavy implications and consequences, especially to the intellectual and social development of learning disabled Peruvian children. Understanding the relation between academic performance and child development is of paramount importance. The present study examines how spelling, reading and arithmetic performances are associated to various child variables (gender, intelligence, and age), and distal variables such as Socio-Economic Status (SES) or type of school. The subjects in the study were 1.129 elementary school children who were in the 6th grade (11 - 12 years old) in Metropolitan Lima, Perú. Children completed four different tests: In the reading area, the subtest of Procesos Lectores (PROLEC-SE; Cuetos & Ramos, 1999), Reading of Word and Pseudo-word; in the Arithmetic domain, the Number Facility from the Kit of Factor Referenced Cognitive Tests of Ekstrom, French, and Harman (1979) and in the spelling domain, the Spelling Achievement Test from Dioses (2001) was used. The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was measured using Raven's Progressive Matrices Test (Raven, J., Raven, J.C., & Court, 2004, updated edition). Some preliminary analyses were conducted beforehand in order to overview and examine the structure of the data. Following this, and because of the hierarchical structure of the data (students within classes within schools) multilevel analyses were conducted. Results showed, first and foremost, a great impact of (a) type of school, private schools performed better than in the public sector; (b) intelligence, another essential variable (the higher the IQ the better the academic achievement), and partially of (c) gender, girls showed prevalence over boys in spelling. Likewise, we did not encounter any significant results of socio-economic status in the multilevel analysis. Based on these results, some practical and pedagogical implications were discussed, such as the fundamental effort to bring the lower achievement group into average levels of learning with remedial work, otherwise these students will lack the requisite skills needed to fulfill their secondary school academic expectations. Notwithstanding, we have to point out some limitations such as the lack of data from rural zones that could prevent us from comparisons between rural and urban zones. Future work is necessary in order to investigate academic performance associated with other variables that might influence the child's development, such as parenting behavior or psychosocial factors.

El estudio que se informa examinó de qué manera el rendimiento académico en diversas áreas del aprendizaje tales como ortografía, lectura y aritmética estuvo asociado con diferentes variables relacionadas con niños (por ejemplo: género, inteligencia y edad). Asimismo, se consideraron algunas variables distales como estatus socioeconómico y tipo de colegio. En el estudio participaron 1.129 niños que cursaban 6to grado de educación primaria en Lima Metropolitana (Perú). Los estudiantes completaron cuatro pruebas: En el área de lectura fueron examinados con un subtest de la prueba Procesos Lectores (PROLEC-SE) Lectura de Palabras y Pseudo - palabras (Cuetos & Ramos, 1999). En el área de Aritmética fueron evaluados con el Subtest de Facilidad Numérica de Ekstrom, French y Harman (1979) y en el caso de Ortografía se aplicó la Prueba de Rendimiento Ortográfico (Dioses, 2001). La variable inteligencia fue medida con la Prueba de Matrices Progresivas de Raven (Raven, J., Raven, J.C. & Court, 2004). Debido a la estructura jerárquica de los datos (estudiantes dentro de clases y clases dentro de escuelas) se aplicó análisis multinivel para cada variable académica (ortografía, lectura y aritmética). Los resultados revelaron un gran impacto en primer lugar del tipo de escuela: los alumnos de escuelas privadas rindieron mejor que los de escuelas públicas en todas las áreas académicas; en segundo lugar, la variable inteligencia juega un rol esencial, cuanto mayor es el coeficiente intelectual del estudiante, mejor es el rendimiento académico, y parcialmente del género; las niñas mostraron un mejor desempeño en comparación con los niños en el área de ortografía. Se discuten en detalle algunas repercusiones pedagógicas.