Development and validation of the physical effort scale (PES).

OBJECTIVES: Previous literature has primarily viewed physical effort as an aversive experience. However, recent research suggests that effort can also be valued positively. These differences in approach and avoidance tendencies toward physical effort may play a key role in the self-regulation of physical activity behaviors. The aim of this study was to develop a scale that measures these tendencies and contributes to a better understanding of physical effort and how it affects behavior. METHODS: The Physical Effort Scale (PES) was developed in Study 1 based on expert evaluations (n = 9) and cognitive interviews (n = 10). In Study 2 (n = 680, 69% female), content validity and dimensional structure were examined using principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Item reduction was conducted using item response theory. Preliminary construct validity was explored using regression. Study 3 (n = 297, 71% female) was used to validate dimensional structure, internal consistency, and construct validity, and to assess test-retest reliability. RESULTS: In Study 1, 44 items were rated for content validity, of which 18 were selected and refined based on cognitive interviews. Analyses from Study 2 allowed reducing the scale to 8 items with a two-dimension structure: tendency to approach (n = 4) and to avoid physical effort (n = 4). The two subscales showed high internal consistency (α = 0.897 for the approach dimension and 0.913 for the avoidance dimension) and explained usual levels of physical activity, providing preliminary evidence of construct validity. Study 3 confirmed the two-dimension structure with high internal consistency (α = 0.907 and 0.916 for the approach and avoidance dimension, respectively) and revealed acceptable test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation >0.66). Patterns of associations with other constructs showed expected relationships, confirming the concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity of the scale. CONCLUSIONS: The PES is a valid and reliable measure of individual differences in the valuation of physical effort. This scale can assess the propensity to engage in physically demanding tasks in non-clinical populations. The PES and its manual are available in the Supplementary Material.

Active mobility and mental health: A scoping review towards a healthier world.

Research has proven that engaging in active mobility (AM), namely walking and cycling for transportation, significantly enhances physical activity levels, leading to better physical health. It is still unclear whether AM could also offer any mental health benefits. This scoping review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current knowledge on the relationship between AM and mental health, given its crucial role in public health. The authors searched online databases to isolate primary studies written in English involving an adult sample (16 or over). AM was the exposure factor. Many mental health elements were included as outcomes (depression, anxiety, self-esteem, self-efficacy, stress, psychological and subjective well-being, resilience, loneliness and social support, quality of life, mood, life satisfaction and sleep). The results were organised in a narrative summary per each outcome selected, graphical syntheses and an overview of gaps to be further examined. The authors identified a total of 55 papers as relevant. The results show inconsistency in study designs, definition and operationalisation of the variables, approach and methodologies used. A cross-sectional design was the dominant choice, primarily examining data from national public health surveys. Nonetheless, there has been improvement in outcomes of interests, initially mainly the quality of life and affect. Lately, authors have focused on a broader range of mental health-related factors (such as travel satisfaction). The experimental studies showed promising mental health improvements in those who used active modes more than those who used motorised vehicles. It creates a rationale for further research towards implementing a unified theoretical and methodological framework to study the link between AM and mental health. The ultimate goal is to generate solid conclusions that could support building societies and cities through public health promotion and sustainable strategies, like walking and cycling as a means of transport.

Limits of Ultra: Towards an Interdisciplinary Understanding of Ultra-Endurance Running Performance.

Ultra-endurance running (UER) poses extreme mental and physical challenges that present many barriers to completion, let alone performance. Despite these challenges, participation in UER events continues to increase. With the relative paucity of research into UER training and racing compared with traditional endurance running distance (e.g., marathon), it follows that there are sizable improvements still to be made in UER if the limitations of the sport are sufficiently understood. The purpose of this review is to summarise our current understanding of the major limitations in UER. We begin with an evolutionary perspective that provides the critical background for understanding how our capacities, abilities and limitations have come to be. Although we show that humans display evolutionary adaptations that may bestow an advantage for covering large distances on a daily basis, these often far exceed the levels of our ancestors, which exposes relative limitations. From that framework, we explore the physiological and psychological systems required for running UER events. In each system, the factors that limit performance are highlighted and some guidance for practitioners and future research are shared. Examined systems include thermoregulation, oxygen delivery and utilisation, running economy and biomechanics, fatigue, the digestive system, nutritional and psychological strategies. We show that minimising the cost of running, damage to lower limb tissue and muscle fatigability may become crucial in UER events. Maintaining a sustainable core body temperature is critical to performance, and an even pacing strategy, strategic heat acclimation and individually calculated hydration all contribute to sustained performance. Gastrointestinal issues affect almost every UER participant and can be due to a variety of factors. We present nutritional strategies for different event lengths and types, such as personalised and evidence-based approaches for varying types of carbohydrate, protein and fat intake in fluid or solid form, and how to avoid flavour fatigue. Psychology plays a vital role in UER performance, and we highlight the need to be able to cope with complex situations, and that specific long and short-term goal setting improves performance. Fatigue in UER is multi-factorial, both physical and mental, and the perceived effort or level of fatigue have a major impact on the ability to continue at a given pace. Understanding the complex interplay of these limitations will help prepare UER competitors for the different scenarios they are likely to face. Therefore, this review takes an interdisciplinary approach to synthesising and illuminating limitations in UER performance to assist practitioners and scientists in making informed decisions in practice and applicable research.

Brain Endurance Training improves endurance and cognitive performance in road cyclists.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of brain endurance training (BET) on endurance and cognitive performance in road cyclists. DESIGN: Two independent randomized controlled pretest-posttest training studies. METHODS: In both studies cyclists trained five times/week for six weeks and completed either cognitive response inhibition tasks (Post-BET group) or listened to neutral sounds (control group) after each training session. In Study-1, 26 cyclists performed a time to exhaustion (TTE) test at 80 % peak power output (PPO), followed by a 30-min Stroop task, and a TTE test at 65 % PPO. In Study-2, 24 cyclists performed a 5-min time trial, followed by a 30-min Stroop task, 60-min submaximal incremental test, and a 20-min . Heart rate, lactate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), Stroop reaction time and accuracy were also measured. RESULTS: During Study 1, Post-BET improved TTE at 80 % (p = 0.032) and 65 % PPO (p = 0.011) significantly more than control with lower RPE (all p < 0.043). In Study 2, 5-min TT performance did not differ between groups. During the 60-min submaximal incremental test, RPE was lower in the Post-BET group compared to the control group (p = 0.034) and 20-min TT performance improved significantly more in the Post-BET group than in the control group (all p < 0.031). No group differences were found in physiological measures. In both studies, Stroop reaction times improved significantly more in the Post-BET group than in the control group (all p < 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that Post-BET may be used to improve the performance of road cyclists.

Assessing Cognitive-Motor Interference in Military Contexts: Validity and Reliability of Two Dual-tasking Tests.

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive-motor interference is the decrease in cognitive performance and/or physical performance occurring when a cognitive task and a physical task are performed concurrently (dual task) compared to when they are performed in isolation (single task). The aim of this study was to investigate the construct validity and test-retest reliability of two cognitive-motor interference tests in military contexts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-two soldiers, officers, and cadets performed a 10-min loaded marching, a 10-min Psychomotor Vigilance Task, and the two tasks combined (visit 1). During visit 2, a 5-min running time trial, a 5-min Word Recall Task, and the two tasks combined. These tests were repeated by 20 participants after 2 weeks (visits 3 and 4). RESULTS: Significant impairments were shown on both running distance (P < .001) and number of words recalled (P = .004) in the dual-task condition compared to the single-task condition. Significantly shorter step length (P < .001) and higher step frequency (P < .001) were found during the loaded marching in the dual-task condition compared to the single-task condition. No significant differences were observed in mean reaction time (P = .402) and number of lapses (P = .479) during the Psychomotor Vigilance Task. Good-to-excellent reliability was found for all the cognitive and physical variables in both single- and dual-task conditions, except for the number of lapses. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that the Running + Word Recall Task test is a valid and reliable dual-tasking test that could be used to assess cognitive-motor interference in military contexts.

Pharmacological Blockade of Muscle Afferents and Perception of Effort: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The perception of effort provides information on task difficulty and influences physical exercise regulation and human behavior. This perception differs from other-exercise related perceptions such as pain. There is no consensus on the role of group III/IV muscle afferents as a signal processed by the brain to generate the perception of effort. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the effect of pharmacologically blocking muscle afferents on the perception of effort. METHODS: Six databases were searched to identify studies measuring the ratings of perceived effort during physical exercise, with and without pharmacological blockade of muscle afferents. Articles were coded based on the operational measurement used to distinguish studies in which perception of effort was assessed specifically (effort dissociated) or as a composite experience including other exercise-related perceptions (effort not dissociated). Articles that did not provide enough information for coding were assigned to the unclear group. RESULTS: The effort dissociated group (n = 6) demonstrated a slight increase in ratings of perceived effort with reduced muscle afferent feedback (standard mean change raw, 0.39; 95% confidence interval 0.13-0.64). The group effort not dissociated (n = 2) did not reveal conclusive results (standard mean change raw, - 0.29; 95% confidence interval - 2.39 to 1.8). The group unclear (n = 8) revealed a slight ratings of perceived effort decrease with reduced muscle afferent feedback (standard mean change raw, - 0.27; 95% confidence interval - 0.50 to - 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The heterogeneity in results between groups reveals that the inclusion of perceptions other than effort in its rating influences the ratings of perceived effort reported by the participants. The absence of decreased ratings of perceived effort in the effort dissociated group suggests that muscle afferent feedback is not a sensory signal for the perception of effort.

May a Nonlocalized Postactivation Performance Enhancement Exist Between the Upper and Lower Body in Trained Men?

ABSTRACT: Bartolomei, S, De Luca, R, and Marcora, SM. May a nonlocalized postactivation performance enhancement exist between the upper and lower body in trained men? J Strength Cond Res 37(1): 68-73, 2023-The aim of this study was to establish whether a resistance exercise for the upper body may generate a postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) in the lower body. Thirteen resistance-trained men (age = 26.4 ± 3.3 years, body mass = 76.9 ± 6.3 kg, and height = 177.6 ± 5.2 cm) participated in the present investigation and were tested for upper-body and lower-body power (bench press throw and countermovement jump power [CMJP] tests). Subjects were also tested for maximum force and electromyographic (EMG) activation of quadriceps muscles while performing an isometric leg extension. All assessments were performed before and 8 minutes after a high-intensity (HI: 5 sets of 1 rep at 90% of 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) bench press protocol, a high-power protocol (POW: 5 sets of 1 rep at 30% of 1RM with maximum explosive intent), and a control trial (CON). Subjects performed all trials in a randomized order and on different days. A significant trial × time interaction was detected for CMJP ( p = 0.049). This parameter was significantly increased following the HI protocol only ( p = 0.024). A significant interaction was also noted for EMG with a significant improvement following the HI protocol ( p = 0.032) and a significant decrease following the POW protocol ( p = 0.020). No other significant effects were detected ( p > 0.05). The results of this investigation indicate that a HI bench press protocol may produce a PAPE in the lower-body power and increase the neuromuscular activation of leg extensor muscles. The POW bench press protocol did not show any positive effects on lower-body performance. Athletes and practitioners may take advantage from the inclusion of upper-body HI resistance exercises throughout complex resistance workouts to improve lower-body power output.

Brain Endurance Training Improves Physical, Cognitive, and Multitasking Performance in Professional Football Players.

PURPOSE: Brain endurance training (BET)-the combination of physical training with mentally fatiguing tasks-could help athletes adapt and increase their performance during sporting competitions. Here we tested whether BET completed after standard physical training improved physical and mental performance more than physical training alone during a preseason football training camp. METHODS: The study employed a pretest/training/posttest design, with 22 professional football players randomly assigned to BET or a control group. Both groups completed 40 physical training sessions over 4 weeks. At the end of a day of physical training, the BET group completed cognitive training, whereas the control group listened to neutral sounds. Players completed the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, repeated sprint ability random test, soccer-specific reactive agility test, and Stroop and psychomotor vigilance tests pretraining and posttraining. Mixed analysis of variance was used to analyze the data. RESULTS: In the posttest (but not pretest) assessments, the BET group consistently outperformed the control group. Specifically, the BET group was faster (P = .02-.04) than the control group during the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, the directional phase of the repeated sprint ability random test, and the soccer-specific reactive agility test. The BET group also made fewer errors (P = .02) during the soccer-specific reactive agility test than the control group. Finally, the BET group responded faster (P = .02) on the Stroop test and made fewer (P = .03) lapses on the psychomotor vigilance test than the control group. CONCLUSION: The inclusion of BET during the preseason seems more effective than standard physical training alone in improving the physical, cognitive, and multitasking performance of professional football players.

Physical and Mental Fatigue Reduce Psychomotor Vigilance in Professional Football Players.

PURPOSE: Professional football players experience both physical and mental fatigue (MF). The main aims of this randomized crossover study were to investigate the effect of MF on repeated-sprint ability (RSA) and the effects of both physical fatigue and MF on psychomotor vigilance. METHODS: Seventeen male professional football players performed 10 maximal 20-m shuttle sprints interspaced by incomplete recovery (RSA test). Running speed, heart rate, brain oxygenation, and rating of perceived exertion were monitored during each sprint. The RSA test was preceded by either a 30-minute Stroop task to induce MF or by watching a documentary for 30 minutes (control [CON]) in a randomized counterbalanced order. Participants performed a psychomotor vigilance test at baseline, after the cognitive task (MF or CON), and after the RSA test. RESULTS: Heart rate and rating of perceived exertion significantly increased, while running speed and brain oxygenation significantly decreased over the repeated sprints (P < .001) with no significant differences between conditions. Response speed during the psychomotor vigilance test significantly declined after the Stroop task but not after CON (P = .001). Response speed during the psychomotor vigilance test declined after the RSA test in both conditions (P < .001) and remained lower in the MF condition compared to CON (P = .012). CONCLUSIONS: MF does not reduce RSA. However, the results of this study suggest that physical fatigue and MF have negative and cumulative effects on psychomotor vigilance. Therefore, strategies to reduce both physical fatigue and MF should be implemented in professional football players.

Development of a Revised Conceptual Framework of Physical Training for Use in Research and Practice.

A conceptual framework has a central role in the scientific process. Its purpose is to synthesize evidence, assist in understanding phenomena, inform future research and act as a reference operational guide in practical settings. We propose an updated conceptual framework intended to facilitate the validation and interpretation of physical training measures. This revised conceptual framework was constructed through a process of qualitative analysis involving a synthesis of the literature, analysis and integration with existing frameworks (Banister and PerPot models). We identified, expanded, and integrated four constructs that are important in the conceptualization of the process and outcomes of physical training. These are: (1) formal introduction of a new measurable component 'training effects', a higher-order construct resulting from the combined effect of four possible responses (acute and chronic, positive and negative); (2) explanation, clarification and examples of training effect measures such as performance, physiological, subjective and other measures (cognitive, biomechanical, etc.); (3) integration of the sport performance outcome continuum (from performance improvements to overtraining); (4) extension and definition of the network of linkages (uni and bidirectional) between individual and contextual factors and other constructs. Additionally, we provided constitutive and operational definitions, and examples of theoretical and practical applications of the framework. These include validation and conceptualization of constructs (e.g., performance readiness), and understanding of higher-order constructs, such as training tolerance, when monitoring training to adapt it to individual responses and effects. This proposed conceptual framework provides an overarching model that may help understand and guide the development, validation, implementation and interpretation of measures used for athlete monitoring.

Ischemic preconditioning of the muscle reduces the metaboreflex response of the knee extensors.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the effect of ischemic preconditioning (IP) on metaboreflex activation following dynamic leg extension exercise in a group of healthy participants. METHOD: Seventeen healthy participants were recruited. IP and SHAM treatments (3 × 5 min cuff occlusion at 220 mmHg or 20 mmHg, respectively) were administered in a randomized order to the upper part of exercising leg's thigh only. Muscle pain intensity (MP) and pain pressure threshold (PPT) were monitored while administrating IP and SHAM treatments. After 3 min of leg extension exercise at 70% of the maximal workload, a post-exercise muscle ischemia (PEMI) was performed to monitor the discharge group III/IV muscle afferents via metaboreflex activation. Hemodynamics were continuously recorded. MP was monitored during exercise and PEMI. RESULTS: IP significantly reduced mean arterial pressure compared to SHAM during metaboreflex activation (mean ± SD, 109.52 ± 7.25 vs. 102.36 ± 7.89 mmHg) which was probably the consequence of a reduced end diastolic volume (mean ± SD, 113.09 ± 14.25 vs. 102.42 ± 9.38 ml). MP was significantly higher during the IP compared to SHAM treatment, while no significant differences in PPT were found. MP did not change during exercise, but it was significantly lower during the PEMI following IP (5.10 ± 1.29 vs. 4.00 ± 1.54). CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that IP reduces hemodynamic response during metaboreflex activation, while no effect on MP and PPT were found. The reduction in hemodynamic response was likely the consequence of a blunted venous return.

Sleep Deprivation Training to Reduce the Negative Effects of Sleep Loss on Endurance Performance: A Single Case Study.

PURPOSE: Sleep deprivation (SD) is very common during ultraendurance competitions. At present, stimulants such as caffeine and naps are the main strategies used to reduce the negative effects of SD on ultraendurance performance. In this case study, the authors describe the application of a novel strategy consisting of the intermittent repetition of SD (SD training [SDT]) during the weeks preceding an ultraendurance competition. METHODS: A male ultraendurance runner underwent a 6-week SDT program (consisting of 1 night SD every Sunday) in addition to his regular physical training program before taking part in a 6-day race. Before and after SDT, the participant performed 5 consecutive days of daily 2-hour constant-pace running with SD on the first and third night. Psychological and physiological responses were measured during this multiday test. RESULTS: SDT was well tolerated by the athlete. A visual analysis of the data suggests that including SDT in the weeks preceding an ultraendurance competition may have beneficial effects on sleepiness and perceived mental effort in the context of 5 consecutive days of prolonged running and 2 nights of SD. This multiday test seems a feasible way for assessing ultraendurance athletes in the laboratory. CONCLUSIONS: The results provided some encouraging initial information about SDT that needs to be confirmed in a randomized controlled trial in a group of ultraendurance athletes. If confirmed to be effective and well tolerated, SDT might be used in the future to help ultraendurance athletes and other populations that have to perform in conditions of SD.

Building a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive drivers of performance under pressure: An international multi-panel Delphi study.

Introduction: The ability to perform optimally under pressure is critical across many occupations, including the military, first responders, and competitive sport. Despite recognition that such performance depends on a range of cognitive factors, how common these factors are across performance domains remains unclear. The current study sought to integrate existing knowledge in the performance field in the form of a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie performance under pressure. Methods: International experts were recruited from four performance domains [(i) Defense; (ii) Competitive Sport; (iii) Civilian High-stakes; and (iv) Performance Neuroscience]. Experts rated constructs from the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework (and several expert-suggested constructs) across successive rounds, until all constructs reached consensus for inclusion or were eliminated. Finally, included constructs were ranked for their relative importance. Results: Sixty-eight experts completed the first Delphi round, with 94% of experts retained by the end of the Delphi process. The following 10 constructs reached consensus across all four panels (in order of overall ranking): (1) Attention; (2) Cognitive Control-Performance Monitoring; (3) Arousal and Regulatory Systems-Arousal; (4) Cognitive Control-Goal Selection, Updating, Representation, and Maintenance; (5) Cognitive Control-Response Selection and Inhibition/Suppression; (6) Working memory-Flexible Updating; (7) Working memory-Active Maintenance; (8) Perception and Understanding of Self-Self-knowledge; (9) Working memory-Interference Control, and (10) Expert-suggested-Shifting. Discussion: Our results identify a set of transdisciplinary neuroscience-informed constructs, validated through expert consensus. This expert consensus is critical to standardizing cognitive assessment and informing mechanism-targeted interventions in the broader field of human performance optimization.

The Effect of a Competitive Futsal Match on Psychomotor Vigilance in Referees.

CONTEXT: Referees' physical and cognitive performance are important for successful officiating in team sports. There is a lack of research on cognitive performance of referees in general, and none in futsal. PURPOSE: To assess referees' performance on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) before and after competitive futsal matches during the Football Association (FA) National Futsal League 2015/16. METHODS: Fourteen futsal referees (mean [SD] age 34.3 [10.0] y) from the FA National Futsal group were included. The referees were required to undertake a 10-min PVT 60 min before the match kickoff time (pretest) and immediately after matches (posttest). They also completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) questionnaire before the prematch PVT and after the postmatch PVT. RESULT: Data were analyzed by paired t tests comparing prematch and postmatch results. There was a significant difference in BRUMS parameters vigor (9.5 [2.5] prematch vs 6.3 [2.4] postmatch, P = .001) and fatigue (1.4 [1.3] prematch vs 5.6 [3.1] postmatch, P < .001). However, PVT performance was significantly improved (mean reaction time 248.3 [26.2] ms prematch vs 239.7 [22.4] ms postmatch, P = .023). CONCLUSIONS: The present results show, contrary to the authors' initial hypothesis, that psychomotor performance is improved as opposed to decreased after a single match. The postmatch improvement suggests that exercise can acutely enhance cognitive performance, which could be used to inform warm-up practices (eg, optimal duration and intensity) geared toward optimizing referees' cognitive performance during matches.