Is there added value of the hepatobiliary phase of MRI with hepatobiliary contrast agents for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis? A meta-analysis.

Purpose: So far, there have been published several meta-analyses which focused on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) detection with hepatobiliary phase (HBP) contrast agents. However, only a few of them aimed at establishing whether there is any added value of the HBP itself for HCC diagnosis. To answer the question, we performed a systematic literature search with the time limit going back to 2010. Material and methods: True positive, false positive, false negative, and true negative values with and without the HBP were extracted from the included studies. Pooled sensitivities and specificities with and without the HBP were calculated and summary receiver operating characteristics curves were drawn to assess the diagnostic performance of the studies with and without the HBP. Results: A total of 13 studies were included involving 1184 HCC lesions. In 13 studies without the HBP, the pooled sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) were 0.83, 0.89 and 0.94 respectively. In 13 studies with the HBP, the pooled sensitivity, specificity and AUC were 0.91, 0.85 and 0.98 respectively. Conclusions: We found no statistically significant differences in sensitivities between studies with and without the HBP (p = 0.1651).

The role of the radiologist in the evaluation of male infertility: recommendations of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology-Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group (ESUR-SPIWG) for scrotal imaging.

OBJECTIVES: The Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group (SPIWG) of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) aimed to produce recommendations on the role of the radiologist in the evaluation of male infertility focused on scrotal imaging. METHODS: The authors independently performed an extensive literature Medline search and a review of the clinical practice and consensus opinion of experts in the field. RESULTS: Scrotal ultrasound (US) is useful in investigating male infertility. US abnormalities related to abnormal sperm parameters (sperm concentration, total count, motility, and morphology) are low testicular volume (TV), testicular inhomogeneity (TI), cryptorchidism, testicular microlithiasis (TML), high-grade varicocele, bilateral absence of vas deferens, bilateral dilation and echotexture abnormalities of the epididymis. The proposed ESUR-SPIWG recommendations for imaging in the evaluation of male infertility are therefore: to measure TV; investigate TI; perform annual (US) follow-ups up to age 55 in men with a history of cryptorchidism/orchidopexy and/or in men with TML plus "additional risk factors" or with "starry sky" TML; perform scrotal/inguinal US in men with nonpalpable testis; perform scrotal US in men with abnormal sperm parameters to investigate lesions suggestive of tumors; evaluate varicocele in a standardized way; evaluate the presence or absence of vas deferens; investigate the epididymis to detect indirect signs suggesting obstruction and/or inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: The ESUR-SPIWG recommends investigating infertile men with scrotal US focusing on TV, inhomogeneity, localization, varicocele, vas deferens, and epididymal abnormalities. Cryptorchidism, TML, and lesions should be detected in relation to the risk of testicular tumors. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: The ESUR-SPIWG recommendations on scrotal imaging in the assessment of male infertility are useful to standardize the US examination, focus on US abnormalities most associated with abnormal semen parameters in an evidence-based manner, and provide a standardized report to patients. KEY POINTS: So far, ESUR-SPIWG recommendations on scrotal imaging in the assessment of male infertility were not available. The ESUR-SPIWG recommends investigating infertile men with scrotal US focusing on testicular volume, inhomogeneity, localization, varicocele, vas deferens and epididymal abnormalities, and assessing cryptorchidism, testicular microlithiasis and lesions in relation to the risk of testicular tumors. The ESUR-SPIWG recommendations on scrotal imaging in the assessment of male infertility are useful to standardize the US examination, focus on US abnormalities most associated with abnormal sperm parameters in an evidence-based manner, and provide a standardized report to patients.

To assess the quantitative features of focal liver lesions in gadoxetic acid enhanced MRI and to determine whether these features can accurately differentiate benign form malignant lesions.

PURPOSE: The study aims at assessing the quantitative features which distinguish focal liver lesions (FLLs) in gadoxetic acid (GA) enhanced liver MRI and at determining whether these features can accurately differentiate benign from malignant lesions. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 107 patients with 180 unequivocal FLLs in previous examinations were included in a single-center retrospective study. All patients underwent a MRI test of the liver with GA. 99 benign and 74 malignant lesions were included. The group of benign lesions consisted of 60 focal nodular hyperplasias (FNH), 22 hemangiomas (HMG), 6 hepatic adenomas (HA), and 11 other benign lesions (1 angiomyolipioma, 6 lesions histopathology diagnoses as benign without further specification, or ones lacking features of malignancy, and 4 lesions radiologically diagnosed as benign which remained stable in the follow-up studies). The group of malignant lesions consisted of primary 51 hepatocellular carcinomas, 12 metastases, and 11 metastases from melanoma malignum (MM meta). 7 FLLs were excluded (4 cases of uncertain histopathological diagnosis, 2 cholangiocarcinomas, and 1 regenerative nodule). For the included lesions ROI (region of interest) measurements were taken by two observers in the T2-w, ADC (apparent diffusion coefficient) and in the T1-w sequence in the hepatobiliary phase (HBP). The interobserver agreement was evaluated with the Wilcoxon test. The Kruskal - Wallis, Mann - Whitney U and post hoc Dunn's tests were applied to assess if there were any significant differences in the ROI values between individual lesions. The variables with the p values of < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: We found significant differences in the ROI values between lesions with p < 0.0001. Strikingly high ROI values in the T2-w sequence were found for HMG. The lowest ADC values were encountered for metastases and MM metastases. The highest ROI values in the HBP were found for FNH, and the lowest for metastases. We also found statistically significant differences in the ROI values between benign and malignant lesions with benign lesions presenting statistically higher ROI values compared to malignant lesions. CONCLUSIONS: There were significant differences in the ROI values among different types of FLLs. The predominant quantitative feature in the T2-w sequence was a strikingly high ROI value for HMG. Benign lesions presented statistically higher ROI values in the T2-w, ADC, and HBP sequences compared to malignant lesions. This was true for all lesions except for HA.

Ultrasound imaging of male urethral stricture disease: a narrative review of the available evidence, focusing on selected prospective studies.

PURPOSE: To synthetize the current scientific knowledge on the use of ultrasound of the male urethra for evaluation of urethral stricture disease. This review aims to provide a detailed description of the technical aspects of ultrasonography, and provides some indications on clinical applications of it, based on the evidence available from the selected prospective studies. Advantages and limitations of the technique are also provided. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search was performed using the Medline and Cochrane databases on October 2022. The articles were searched using the keywords "sonourethrography", "urethral ultrasound", "urethral stricture" and "SUG". Only human studies and articles in English were included. Articles were screened by two reviewers (M.F. and K.M.). RESULTS: Our literature search reporting on the role of sonourethrography in evaluating urethral strictures resulted in selection of 17 studies, all prospective, even if of limited quality due to the small patients' number (varied from 28 to 113). Nine studies included patients with urethral stricture located in anterior urethra and eight studies included patients regardless of the stricture location. Final analysis was based on selected prospective studies, whose power was limited by the small patients' groups. CONCLUSION: Sonourethrography is a cost-effective and safe technique allowing for a dynamic and three-dimensional urethra assessment. Yet, because of its limited value in detecting posterior urethral strictures, the standard urethrography should remain the basic 'road-map' prior to surgery. It is an operator-dependent technique, which can provide detailed information on the length, location, and extent of spongiofibrosis without risks of exposure to ionizing radiation.

Usefulness of core biopsy in diagnosis of pancreatic tumours.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyse the usefulness of core biopsy in the diagnosis of malignant neoplasms of the pancreas - sensitivity and accuracy of diagnosis, safety of the procedure, indication of factors that may increase the risk of complications after biopsy. Material and methods: A retrospective analysis of data was performed in a group of 100 patients diagnosed with a focal lesion of the pancreas, qualified for a core biopsy. Results: The results are a sensitivity of 92%, a specificity of 100%, and an accuracy of 93.3%. The incidence of more severe complications according to the Clavien-Dindo classification was 1% (one case in the material studied). The results of the analysis were compared with the results of other authors, showing similar values for the sensitivity and specificity of the method and low rates of serious complications; it also seems that the tissue material obtained by core biopsy has higher diagnostic potential than that obtained by endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration (EUS-FNA), currently considered the method of choice. In addition, the costs of transabdominal biopsy and endoscopic biopsy were compared; the lower cost of the former may be an important economic issue when choosing the biopsy method. Conclusions: The results show core biopsy to be a sensitive, accurate, and safe method for obtaining the tissue necessary to plan treatment in patients with pancreatic cancer.

Numerical analysis of the ostiomeatal complex aeration using the CFD method.

We aimed to analyse ostiomeatal complex (OMC) aeration using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method of simulation based on human craniofacial computed tomography (CT) scans. The analysis was based on CT images of 2 patients: one with normal nose anatomy and one with nasal septal deviation (NSD). The Reynolds-Average Simulation approach and turbulence model based on linear eddy viscosity supplemented with the two-equation k-[Formula: see text] SST model were used for the CFD simulation. As a result, we found differences in airflow velocity through the ostiomeatal complex in patients with a normal nose and those with NSD. In a patient with NSD, the flow is turbulent in contrast to the normal nose (laminar flow). A faster (more intensive) airflow through the OMC was observed in the wider nasal cavity of the patient with NSD than on the narrower side. In addition, we want to emphasise the higher speed of airflow through the apex uncinate process area towards the ostiomeatal complex during exhalation, which, in the presence of secretions in the nose, predisposes to its easier penetration into the sinuses of the anterior group.

Evaluation of Subcortical Structure Volumes in Patients with Non-Specific Digestive Diseases.

(1) Background: To evaluate volume of subcortical structures such as hippocampus, globus pallidus, putamen, thalamus, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, caudate in patients with non-specific digestive diseases (functional dyspepsia-FD, irritable bowel syndrome-IBS) and non-specific inflammatory bowel diseases-IBD (colitis ulcerosa and Crohn's disease) in comparison to healthy control group (CON). (2) Material: The analysis included data obtained from 57 patients (FD-18, IBS-20, IBD-19) and 19 persons in control group. Both groups underwent examination in a 3T scanner (Achieva TX Philips Healthcare). (3) Results: Significant differences between the IBD group and Control group in volume of left thalamus and IBD group vs Control group in volume of right thalamus. (4) Conclusions: The brain-gut axis hypothesis explains connection between biological behavior, emotions and cognitive functions in patients with gastrointestinal disease. We found that there is a difference between volume of thalamus in IBD patients in comparison to both IBS and control group and it occurred to be smaller. Excess inflammation can be linked with psychological disorders like depressive symptoms, sleep difficulties and/or fatigue. Therefore, there is a need for using treatment both for depressive symptoms and IBD to reduce the causes and effects of inflammation.

Synchronous bilateral multifocal basal cell adenomas of the parotid gland-a case report.

BACKGROUND: Bilateral parotid gland tumors account for up to 3% of cases. In this group, the vast majority are Warthin's tumors. However, bilateral presentations of other parotid gland tumor entities is also possible, an example of which is a basal cell adenoma (BCA). Bilateral BCA is extremely rare, which could cause misdiagnosing it as a Warthin tumor. CASE PRESENTATION: The current study reports the unique case of a 48-year-old woman who presented with a 6-month history of slowly growing masses located bilaterally in the parotid region, surgically treated with 5-year follow-up (no recurrence, normal facial nerve function). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed three lesions: two in the superficial and deep lobes of the right parotid gland, and one in the superficial lobe of the left parotid gland. A total parotidectomy with facial nerve preservation was performed on the right side, and superficial parotidectomy on the left side 6 months later. Histopathological examination confirmed that all three tumors were BCAs. Molecular analysis didn't show any strong, potential of unknown clinical significance in the studied sample. CONCLUSIONS: Multifocal bilateral lesions of the parotid gland are usually Warthin tumors. Detailed preoperative diagnostics including MRI and histopathological examination is essential to avoid misdiagnosing BCA and Warthin tumors. To our best knowledge, no case of synchronous bilateral multifocal basal cell adenomas of the parotid gland has been reported in English literature so far.

Maxillary sinus aeration analysis using computational fluid dynamics.

The maxillary sinus aeration using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method based on individual adult patients' computed tomography (CT) scans were analyzed. The analysis was based on CT images of 4 patients: one with normal nose anatomy and three with nasal septal deviation (NSD) and concha bullosa (CB). The CFD simulation was performed using the Reynolds-Average Simulation approach and turbulence closure based on linear eddy viscosity supplemented with the two-equation k-[Formula: see text] SST model. As a result, it was found that the lower part of NSD has the most significant impact on the airflow change within the maxillary sinuses compared to CB and the upper part of NSD. In a healthy nose, the airflow in the sinuses is continuous, while NSD and CB change this flow into pulsatile. Multiple changes in the direction of flow during one respiratory phase were observed. The flow intensity within the maxillary sinus opening is lower on the NSD side. The concept of vorticity measure is introduced to evaluate and compare various patients qualitatively. Typically, the lowest values of such measures are obtained for healthy airways and the highest for pathological changes in the nasal cavity.

Feasibility of Intravoxel Incoherent Motion (IVIM) and Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging (DCE-MRI) in Differentiation of Benign Parotid Gland Tumors.

Aim: The aim of this prospective study is to identify quantitative intravoxel incoherent motion and dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging parameters of the most frequent benign parotid tumors, compare their utility and diagnostic accuracy. Methods: The study group consisted of 52 patients with 64 histopathologically confirmed parotid focal lesions. Parametric maps representing apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), pure diffusion coefficient (D), pseudo-diffusion coefficient (D*), perfusion fraction (FP) and transfer constant (Ktrans), reflux constant (Kep), extra-vascular extra-cellular volume fraction (Ve), and initial area under curve in 60 s (iAUC) have been obtained from multiparametric MRI. Results: Statistically significant (p < 0.001) inter-group differences were found between pleomorphic adenomas (PA) and Warthin tumors (WT) in all tested parameters but iAUC. Receiver operating characteristic curves were constructed to determine the optimal cut-off levels of the most significant parameters allowing differentiation between WT and PA. The Area Under the Curve (AUC) values and thresholds were for ADC: 0.931 and 1.05, D: 0.896 and 0.9, Kep: 0.964 and 1.1 and Ve: 0.939 and 0.299, respectively. Lesions presenting with a combination of ADC, D, and Ve values superior to the cut-off and Kep values inferior to the cut-off are classified as pleomorphic adenomas. Lesions presenting with combination of ADC, D, and Ve values inferior to the cut-off and Kep values superior to the cut-off are classified as Warthin tumors. Conclusions: DWI, IVIM and quantitative analysis of DCE-MRI derived parameters demonstrated distinctive features of PAs and WT and as such they seem feasible in differentiation of benign parotid gland tumors.

Value of dynamic contrast enhanced MRI in differential diagnostics of Warthin tumors and parotid malignancies.

To define an algorithm for differential diagnostics of parotid malignancies and Warthin tumors (WTs) based on dynamic contrast enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI). 55 patients with parotid tumors treated surgically were analyzed. Of which, 19 had parotid malignancy and 36 had WTs confirmed with postoperative histopathological examination. Accuracy of DCE-MRI parameters (Tpeak and WR) was compared with the histopathological diagnosis. ROC analysis was performed to determine sensitivity and specificity of DCE-MRI with various Tpeak and WR cut-off values. WT showed significantly lower median Tpeak and higher median WR than malignant lesions. The cut-off values for Tpeak and WR providing maximum sensitivity (84.2%) and specificity (86.1%) for malignant tumors were Tpeak > 60 s and WR ≤ 30%. Different diagnostic algorithm, i.e., lower cut-off value for Tpeak (Tpeak = 60 s), increases sensitivity of DCE-MRI in differentiating parotid malignancies from WTs. However, WR > 30% seems to be a key diagnostic criterion for benign lesions. Precise and reliable preoperative diagnostics of parotid tumors aids in careful surgical planning, thereby assisting in achieving sufficient surgical resection margins and facial nerve preservation.

Imaging in scrotal trauma: a European Society of Urogenital Radiology Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group (ESUR-SPIWG) position statement.

Imaging plays a crucial role in the evaluation of scrotal trauma. Among the imaging modalities, greyscale ultrasound and Colour Doppler ultrasound (CDUS) are the primary techniques with the selective utilisation of advanced techniques such as contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) and elastography. Despite ultrasound being the mainstay of imaging scrotal trauma, its diagnostic performance is not fully established. Considering these difficulties and their impact on clinical practice, the Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR-SPIWG) established an expert task force to review the current literature and consolidate their expertise on examination standards and imaging appearances of various entities in scrotal trauma. This paper provides the position statements agreed on by the task force with the aim of providing guidance for the use of imaging especially multiparametric US in scrotal trauma.Key Points• Greyscale and Colour Doppler ultrasound are the mainstay of imaging in patients with scrotal trauma.• Contrast-enhanced ultrasound and elastography are the advanced techniques useful as a problem-solving modality in equivocal cases.• This paper summarises the position statements of the ESUR-SPIWG on the appropriate utilisation of multiparametric ultrasound and other imaging modalities in the evaluation of scrotal trauma.

Three-dimensional modeling and automatic analysis of the human nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses using the computational fluid dynamics method.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to develop a complete workflow allowing for conducting computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of airflow through the upper airways based on computed tomography (CT) and cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) studies of individual adult patients. METHODS: This study is based on CT images of 16 patients. Image processing and model generation of the human nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses were performed using open-source and freeware software. 3-D Slicer was used primarily for segmentation and new surface model generation. Further processing was done using Autodesk® Meshmixer TM. The governing equations are discretized by means of the finite volume method. Subsequently, the corresponding algebraic equation systems were solved by OpenFOAM software. RESULTS: We described the protocol for the preparation of a 3-D model of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses and highlighted several problems that the future researcher may encounter. The CFD results were presented based on examples of 3-D models of the patient 1 (norm) and patient 2 (pathological changes). CONCLUSION: The short training time for new user without a prior experience in image segmentation and 3-D mesh editing is an important advantage of this type of research. Both CBCT and CT are useful for model building. However, CBCT may have limitations. The Q criterion in CFD illustrates the considerable complication of the nasal flow and allows for direct evaluation and quantitative comparison of various flows and can be used for the assessment of nasal airflow.

MRI in patients with urethral stricture: a systematic review.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is gaining acceptance as a diagnostic tool in urethral stricture disease. Numerous publications emphasize on the advantages of MRI including its ability to determine periurethral spongiofibrosis, thus overcoming the main limitation of retrograde urethrography (RUG). It is also becoming an alternative for sonourethrography (SUG), which is a highly subjective examination. Magnetic resonance urethrography (MRU) has become an increasingly appreciated tool for diagnosing patients with urethral stricture disease. Obtained data provides radiologists and urethral reconstructive surgeons with additional information regarding anatomical relationships and periurethral tissue details, facilitating further treatment planning. Considering the great prevalence of urethral stricture disease and necessity of using accurate, and acceptable diagnostic method, this review was designed to provide radiologists and clinicians with a systematic review of the literature on the use of MRI in the urethral stricture disease.

Clinical and demographic data improve diagnostic accuracy of dynamic contrast-enhanced and diffusion-weighted MRI in differential diagnostics of parotid gland tumors.

PURPOSE: To verify if differential diagnostic algorithms based on selected parameters of dynamic and diffusion-weighted MRI, clinical and demographic variables are accurate enough to differentiate between parotid malignancies, pleomorphic adenomas and Warthin tumors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 84 patients, among them 19 (23%) with postoperative diagnosis of a parotid malignancy, 37 (44%) with Warthin tumors and 28 (33%) with pleomorphic adenomas. Accuracy of dynamic and diffusion-weighted MRI parameters (Tpeak, Tmax, WR and ADC), clinical parameters of the tumor (location in the superficial or deep parotid lobe, single vs. multiple lesion, concomitant lymphadenopathy) and demographic characteristics of the patient (age, sex) was determined on ROC analysis. RESULTS: Compared to Warthin tumors, parotid malignancies showed higher Tpeak, Tmax and ADC, lower WR, were more often located in the deep lobe of the parotid and presented as single lesions with concomitant lymphadenopathy. Consideration of all these variables provided 100% sensitivity and 89.2% specificity of the differential diagnostic algorithm. Compared to pleomorphic adenomas, parotid malignancies presented with lower ADC and Tpeak, higher Tmax, were more often located in the deep lobe of the parotid, associated with concomitant lymphadenopathy, diagnosed in men and individuals older than 66 years. Consideration of all these variables provided 100% sensitivity and 96.4% specificity of the differential diagnostic algorithm. CONCLUSION: Combined analysis of clinical data and results of dynamic and diffusion-weighted MRI may provide nearly ideal accuracy in differential diagnostics of parotid malignancies and the two most common histological types of benign tumors.

Ultrasound evaluation of varicoceles: systematic literature review and rationale of the ESUR-SPIWG Guidelines and Recommendations.

Although often asymptomatic and detected incidentally, varicocele is a relatively common problem in patients who seek medical attention for infertility problems. Ultrasound (US) is the imaging modality of choice for evaluation, but there is no consensus on the diagnostic criteria, classification, and examination technique. In view of this uncertainty, the Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR-SPIWG) undertook a systematic review of the available literature on this topic, to use as the basis for evidence-based guidelines and recommendations. This paper provides the results of the systematic review on which guidelines were constructed.

Imaging of Morphological Background in Selected Functional and Inflammatory Gastrointestinal Diseases in fMRI.

The study focuses on evaluation of the Default Mode Network (DMN) activity in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in resting state in patients with functional dyspepsia (FD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Crohn's disease and colitis ulcerosa (IBD) in comparison to healthy volunteers. We assume that etiology of both functional and non-specific inflammatory bowel diseases is correlated with disrupted structure of axonal connections. We would like to identify the network of neuronal connections responsible for presentation of symptoms in these diseases. 56 patients (functional dyspepsia, 18; Crohn's disease and colitis ulcerosa, 18; irritable bowel syndrome, 20) and 18 healthy volunteers underwent examination in MRI of the brain with assessment of brain morphology and central nervous system activity in functional imaging in resting state performed in 3T scanner. Compared to healthy controls' DMN in patients with non-specific digestive tract diseases comprised additional areas in superior frontal gyrus of left hemisphere, in left cingulum and in the left supplementary motor area. Discovered differences in the DMNs can be interpreted as altered processing of homeostatic stimuli. Our study group involved patients suffering from both functional and non-specific inflammatory bowel diseases. Nevertheless a spectrum of changes in the study group (superior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere, in the left cingulum and in the left supplementary motor area) we were able to find common features, differentiating the whole study group from the healthy controls.

Ultrasound evaluation of varicoceles: guidelines and recommendations of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group (ESUR-SPIWG) for detection, classification, and grading.

Varicoceles are relatively common particularly in asymptomatic men and are even more prevalent in subfertile men, representing the most common potentially correctable cause of male infertility. Ultrasound (US) is the imaging modality of choice for varicocele evaluation, but there is no widely accepted consensus on examination technique, diagnostic criteria, or classification. In view of this uncertainty, the guideline writing group (WG) of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) Scrotal and Penile Imaging Working Group (ESUR-SPIWG) undertook a literature review and assessment of the quality of relevant evidence. The group then produced evidence-based recommendations for varicocele US examination, interpretation, and classification by consensus agreement. The results are presented in the form of 15 clinical questions with a brief summary of the relevant evidence and the authorised recommendations from the SPIWG. This paper provides a short summary of the evidence evaluation and the complete recommendations.Key Points• Varicocele is a common clinical problem; it is highly prevalent amongst subfertile men and the most common potentially correctable cause of male infertility. • Ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice for varicocele assessment, but there is no generally agreed consensus on the US examination technique or the criteria that should be used for diagnosis, grading, and classification. • This paper summarises the recommendations of the ESUR-SPIWG for standardising the US assessment of varicoceles. This includes examination technique, image interpretation, classification, and reporting.

Use of functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with irritable bowel syndrome and functional dyspepsia.

Functional brain imaging (positron emission tomography - PET, functional magnetic resonance imaging - fMRI), allowing in vivo analysis of the brain-digestive tract interaction and the neurological mechanisms underlying visceral hypersensitivity, significantly advanced research and helped in the understanding of the interrelations in this field. Differences in this parameter can result from alterations in task-related cognitive states or from resting state processes. Nowadays, advanced imaging techniques such as fMRI are more frequently used and are acknowledged among both clinicians and radiologists in the diagnostic algorithm of digestive tract diseases. Functional dyspepsia is a condition in which neuroimaging allows for analysis of dysfunctions within the brain-gut axis (BGA) engaged in processing of visceral discomfort and pain. The results of studies in patient groups with irritable bowel syndrome prove that psychosocial factors significantly affect the mechanisms regulating visceral sensitivity within the brain. The BGA includes neuronal pathways (autonomic nervous system), neuroendocrine (hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis), and neuroimmunological ones. Psychological processes affect the functioning of the digestive system and can cause dyspeptic symptoms. A patient's mental condition associated with stress can affect processes taking place in the central nervous system and trigger somatic reactions in the digestive tract through the autonomic visceral system.