Analysis techniques for blob properties from gas puff imaging data.

Filamentary structures, also known as blobs, are a prominent feature of turbulence and transport at the edge of magnetically confined plasmas. They cause cross-field particle and energy transport and are, therefore, of interest in tokamak physics and, more generally, nuclear fusion research. Several experimental techniques have been developed to study their properties. Among these, measurements are routinely performed with stationary probes, passive imaging, and, in more recent years, Gas Puff Imaging (GPI). In this work, we present different analysis techniques developed and used on 2D data from the suite of GPI diagnostics in the Tokamak à Configuration Variable, featuring different temporal and spatial resolutions. Although specifically developed to be used on GPI data, these techniques can be employed to analyze 2D turbulence data presenting intermittent, coherent structures. We focus on size, velocity, and appearance frequency evaluation with, among other methods, conditional averaging sampling, individual structure tracking, and a recently developed machine learning algorithm. We describe in detail the implementation of these techniques, compare them against each other, and comment on the scenarios to which these techniques are best applied and on the requirements that the data must fulfill in order to yield meaningful results.

Gas puff imaging on the TCV tokamak.

We present the design and operation of a suite of Gas Puff Imaging (GPI) diagnostic systems installed on the Tokamak à Configuration Variable (TCV) for the study of turbulence in the plasma edge and Scrape-Off-Layer (SOL). These systems provide the unique ability to simultaneously collect poloidal 2D images of plasma dynamics at the outboard midplane, around the X-point, in both the High-Field Side (HFS) and Low-Field Side (LFS) SOL, and in the divertor region. We describe and characterize an innovative control system for deuterium and helium gas injection, which is becoming the default standard for the other gas injections at TCV. Extensive pre-design studies and the different detection systems are presented, including an array of avalanche photodiodes and a high-speed CMOS camera. First results with spatial and time resolutions of up to ≈2 mm and 0.5 µs, respectively, are described, and future upgrades of the GPI diagnostics for TCV are discussed.

Particle transport constraints via Bayesian spectral fitting of multiple atomic lines.

Optimized operation of fusion devices demands detailed understanding of plasma transport, a problem that must be addressed with advances in both measurement and data analysis techniques. In this work, we adopt Bayesian inference methods to determine experimental particle transport, leveraging opportunities from high-resolution He-like ion spectra in a tokamak plasma. The Bayesian spectral fitting code is used to analyze resonance (w), forbidden (z), intercombination (x, y), and satellite (k, j) lines of He-like Ca following laser blow-off injections on Alcator C-Mod. This offers powerful transport constraints since these lines depend differently on electron temperature and density, but also differ in their relation to Li-like, He-like, and H-like ion densities, often the dominant Ca charge states over most of the C-Mod plasma radius. Using synthetic diagnostics based on the AURORA package, we demonstrate improved effectiveness of impurity transport inferences when spectroscopic data from a progressively larger number of lines are included.

A 1D Lyman-alpha profile camera for plasma edge neutral studies on the DIII-D tokamak.

A one dimensional, absolutely calibrated pinhole camera system was installed on the DIII-D tokamak to measure edge Lyman-alpha (Ly-α) emission from hydrogen isotopes, which can be used to infer neutral density and ionization rate profiles. The system is composed of two cameras, each providing a toroidal fan of 20 lines of sight, viewing the plasma edge on the inboard and outboard side of DIII-D. The cameras' views lie in a horizontal plane 77 cm below the midplane. At its tangency radius, each channel provides a radial resolution of ∼2 cm full width at half maximum (FWHM) with a total coverage of 22 cm. Each camera consists of a rectangular pinhole, Ly-α reflective mirror, narrow-band Ly-α transmission filter, and a 20 channel AXUV photodetector. The combined mirror and transmission filter have a FWHM of 5 nm, centered near the Ly-α wavelength of 121.6 nm and is capable of rejecting significant, parasitic carbon-III (C-III) emission from intrinsic plasma impurities. To provide a high spatial resolution measurement in a compact footprint, the camera utilizes advanced engineering and manufacturing techniques including 3D printing, high stability mirror mounts, and a novel alignment procedure. Absolutely calibrated, spatially resolved Ly-α brightness measurements utilize a bright, isolated line with low parasitic surface reflections and enable quantitative comparison to modeling to study divertor neutral leakage, main chamber fueling, and radial particle transport.

Multi-energy SXR cameras for magnetically confined fusion plasmas (invited).

A compact multi-energy soft x-ray camera has been developed for time, energy and space-resolved measurements of the soft-x-ray emissivity in magnetically confined fusion plasmas. Multi-energy soft x-ray imaging provides a unique opportunity for measuring, simultaneously, a variety of important plasma properties (Te, nZ, ΔZeff, and ne,fast). The electron temperature can be obtained by modeling the slope of the continuum radiation from ratios of the available brightness and inverted radial emissivity profiles over multiple energy ranges. Impurity density measurements are also possible using the line-emission from medium- to high-Z impurities to separate the background as well as transient levels of metal contributions. This technique should be explored also as a burning plasma diagnostic in-view of its simplicity and robustness.

Effects of magnetic shear on toroidal rotation in tokamak plasmas with lower hybrid current drive.

Application of lower hybrid (LH) current drive in tokamak plasmas can induce both co- and countercurrent directed changes in toroidal rotation, depending on the core q profile. For discharges with q(0) <1, rotation increments in the countercurrent direction are observed. If the LH-driven current is sufficient to suppress sawteeth and increase q(0) above unity, the core toroidal rotation change is in the cocurrent direction. This change in sign of the rotation increment is consistent with a change in sign of the residual stress (the divergence of which constitutes an intrinsic torque that drives the flow) through its dependence on magnetic shear.

Formation and stability of impurity "snakes" in tokamak plasmas.

New observations of the formation and dynamics of long-lived impurity-induced helical "snake" modes in tokamak plasmas have recently been carried out on Alcator C-Mod. The snakes form as an asymmetry in the impurity ion density that undergoes a seamless transition from a small helically displaced density to a large crescent-shaped helical structure inside q<1, with a regularly sawtoothing core. The observations show that the conditions for the formation and persistence of a snake cannot be explained by plasma pressure alone. Instead, many features arise naturally from nonlinear interactions in a 3D MHD model that separately evolves the plasma density and temperature.

Far-infrared polarimetry diagnostic for measurement of internal magnetic field dynamics and fluctuations in the C-MOD Tokamak (invited).

A laser-based (2.55 THz) mulitchord polarimeter is now operational on Alcator C-Mod and is used to make measurements of the internal magnetic field structure as well as plasma fluctuations. The polarimeter is designed to measure the Faraday effect for high-field (up to 8.3 T) and high-density (up to 5 × 10(20) m(-3)) ITER relevant plasma conditions. Initial 3 chord tests are consistent with magnetic equilibrium reconstructions and indicate no measurable contamination from the toroidal magnetic field due to the Cotton-Mouton effect or misalignment. Time response of <1 µs enables the measurement of fast equilibrium temporal dynamics as well as high-frequency fluctuations.

Modification of ordinary-mode reflectometry system to detect lower-hybrid waves in Alcator C-Mod.

Backscattering experiments to detect lower-hybrid (LH) waves have been performed in Alcator C-Mod, using the two modified channels (60 GHz and 75 GHz) of an ordinary-mode reflectometry system with newly developed spectral recorders that can continuously monitor spectral power at a target frequency. The change in the baseline of the spectral recorder during the LH wave injection is highly correlated to the strength of the X-mode non-thermal electron cyclotron emission. In high density plasmas where an anomalous drop in the lower hybrid current drive efficiency is observed, the observed backscattered signals are expected to be generated near the last closed flux surface, demonstrating the presence of LH waves within the plasma. This experimental technique can be useful in identifying spatially localized LH electric fields in the periphery of high-density plasmas.

Edge temperature gradient as intrinsic rotation drive in Alcator C-Mod tokamak plasmas.

Intrinsic rotation has been observed in I-mode plasmas from the C-Mod tokamak, and is found to be similar to that in H mode, both in its edge origin and in the scaling with global pressure. Since both plasmas have similar edge ∇T, but completely different edge ∇n, it may be concluded that the drive of the intrinsic rotation is the edge ∇T rather than ∇P. Evidence suggests that the connection between gradients and rotation is the residual stress, and a scaling for the rotation from conversion of free energy to macroscopic flow is calculated.

Rotation reversal bifurcation and energy confinement saturation in tokamak Ohmic L-mode plasmas.

Direction reversals of intrinsic toroidal rotation have been observed in diverted Alcator C-Mod Ohmic L-mode plasmas following electron density ramps. For low density discharges, the core rotation is directed cocurrent, and reverses to countercurrent following an increase in the density above a certain threshold. Such reversals occur together with a decrease in density fluctuations with 2 cm(-1)≤k(θ)≤11 cm(-1) and frequencies above 70 kHz. There is a strong correlation between the reversal density and the density at which the Ohmic L-mode energy confinement changes from the linear to the saturated regime.

Preliminary results from the Alcator C-Mod polarimeter.

A poloidally viewing far infrared polarimeter diagnostic is being developed for the Alcator C-Mod tokamak, and will be used to determine the q-profile and to study density and magnetic field fluctuations. A three-chord version of what will eventually be up to a ten-chord system has been designed and fabricated and will be installed on C-Mod before the end of the current run period. Bench tests of a single chord mock-up of this system show acceptable noise levels for the planned measurements. We will discuss the analysis and experimental techniques used to diagnose and reduce noise sources.

Direct detection of lower hybrid wave using a reflectometer on Alcator C-Mod.

The possibility of directly detecting a density perturbation produced by lower hybrid (LH) waves using a reflectometer is presented. We investigate the microwave scattering of reflectometer probe beams by a model density fluctuation produced by short wavelength LH waves in an Alcator C-Mod experimental condition. In the O-mode case, the maximum response of phase measurement is found to occur when the density perturbation is approximately centimeters in front of the antenna, where Bragg scattering condition is satisfied. In the X-mode case, the phase measurement is predicted to be more sensitive to the density fluctuation close to the cut-off layer. A feasibility test was carried out using a 50 GHz O-mode reflectometer on the Alcator C-Mod tokamak, and positive results including the detection of 4.6 GHz pump wave and parametric decay instabilities were obtained.

Observation of self-generated flows in tokamak plasmas with lower-hybrid-driven current.

In Alcator C-Mod discharges lower hybrid waves have been shown to induce a countercurrent change in toroidal rotation of up to 60 km/s in the central region of the plasma (r/a approximately <0.4). This modification of the toroidal rotation profile develops on a time scale comparable to the current redistribution time (approximately 100 ms) but longer than the energy and momentum confinement times (approximately 20 ms). A comparison of the co- and countercurrent injected waves indicates that current drive (as opposed to heating) is responsible for the rotation profile modifications. Furthermore, the changes in central rotation velocity induced by lower hybrid current drive (LHCD) are well correlated with changes in normalized internal inductance. The application of LHCD has been shown to generate sheared rotation profiles and a negative increment in the radial electric field profile consistent with a fast electron pinch.

Spatially resolved high resolution x-ray spectroscopy for magnetically confined fusion plasmas (invited).

The use of high resolution x-ray crystal spectrometers to diagnose fusion plasmas has been limited by the poor spatial localization associated with chord integrated measurements. Taking advantage of a new x-ray imaging spectrometer concept [M. Bitter et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75, 3660 (2004)], and improvements in x-ray detector technology [Ch. Broennimann et al., J. Synchrotron Radiat. 13, 120 (2006)], a spatially resolving high resolution x-ray spectrometer has been built and installed on the Alcator C-Mod tokamak. This instrument utilizes a spherically bent quartz crystal and a set of two dimensional x-ray detectors arranged in the Johann configuration [H. H. Johann, Z. Phys. 69, 185 (1931)] to image the entire plasma cross section with a spatial resolution of about 1 cm. The spectrometer was designed to measure line emission from H-like and He-like argon in the wavelength range 3.7 and 4.0 A with a resolving power of approximately 10,000 at frame rates up to 200 Hz. Using spectral tomographic techniques [I. Condrea, Phys. Plasmas 11, 2427 (2004)] the line integrated spectra can be inverted to infer profiles of impurity emissivity, velocity, and temperature. From these quantities it is then possible to calculate impurity density and electron temperature profiles. An overview of the instrument, analysis techniques, and example profiles are presented.

Observation of anomalous momentum transport in tokamak plasmas with no momentum input.

Anomalous momentum transport has been observed in Alcator C-Mod tokamak plasmas through analysis of the time evolution of core impurity toroidal rotation velocity profiles. Following the L-mode to EDA (enhanced D(alpha)) H-mode transition, the ensuing cocurrent toroidal rotation velocity, which is generated in the absence of any external momentum source, is observed to propagate in from the edge plasma to the core. The steady state toroidal rotation velocity profiles are relatively flat and the momentum transport can be simulated with a simple diffusion model. Velocity profiles during edge localized mode free (ELM-free) H-modes are centrally peaked, which suggests the addition of inward momentum convection. In all operating regimes the observed momentum diffusivities are much larger than the neoclassical values.

Bilateral femoral head fracture with posterior hip dislocation.

Bilateral posterior hip dislocations with femoral head fractures are rare. We report the case of a 71-year-old woman who was an unrestrained driver involved in a head-on motor vehicle collision. The right hip was stable after reduction, while the left hip was felt to be unstable. Bilateral bipolar endoprostheses were inserted via standard posterior approaches. Fracture fragments composed approximately 35% of the femoral head in both hips. We believe an elderly polytrauma patient with a significant femoral head fracture may benefit from primary arthroplasty as a treatment option, especially in cases of bilateral injury.

The role of cold compression dressings in the postoperative treatment of total knee arthroplasty.

A prospective randomized study was performed to evaluate the role of cold compressive dressings in the postoperative treatment of total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Eighty consecutive unilateral and ten bilateral primary total knee replacements were evaluated in terms of blood loss, pain relief, and range of motion. Patients in the cold compression group demonstrated an average of 548 ml in suction drainage, whereas those in the control group averaged 807 ml. This resulted in an average 3.1 mg hemoglobin drop in the cold compression group and 4.7 mg in the control group. When body habitus and weight were taken into account in the cold compression group, an average total blood loss of 1298 cc was calculated, with 744 ml arising from soft tissue extravasation. The corresponding total blood loss calculated average was 1908 ml in the control group, with 1101 ml attributed to soft tissue extravasation. Total injectable morphine per kilogram per initial 48 hours averaged 0.53 mg in the cold compression patients and 0.69 mg in the control patients. In the cold compression knees, range of motion averaged 86 degrees before operation, 53 degrees on postoperative day (POD) 7, and 77 degrees on POD 14. In the control knees, range of motion averaged 88 degrees before operation, 44 degrees on POD 7, and 65 degrees on POD 14. The use of cold compression in the postoperative period of TKA results in a dramatic decrease in blood loss. In addition, mild improvements are seen in early return of motion and injectable narcotic pain needs in the postoperative period.

Development and impact of a hospital-based perioperative patient education program in a joint replacement center.

This article describes the development and impact of a hospital-based education program for patients undergoing knee or hip replacement surgery. The program consists of three components: a preoperative 1-hour education session conducted by a case manager providing information on what to expect from the procedure; a discussion by previous patients addressing unnecessary fears; and elective membership after discharge in a hospital-based support group providing patients with information on how to live with arthritis and with new joints. The impact of the program on patient outcomes was investigated through a 5-year retrospective study. Data were collected from patients to assess their perceptions of the program and of the outcome of their surgery. Results of the study indicated favorable impact on both patient care outcomes.