Soymilk stability increase using polyphenols microcapsules.

Functional beverages have aroused a great interest to the food industry. Among the functional ingredients, there is a growing demand for antioxidant incorporation into foods, which implies a challenge to preserve their bioactivity. The health benefits provided by soymilk can be improved by the addition with microcapsules of polyphenols from peanut skin and this procedure is an alternative to protect these natural and bioactive compounds from environmental factors. The aim of this work was to determine the chemical, antioxidant, microbiological and sensory changes during storage of the product. Soymilk samples were prepared without any addition (C); with peanut skin extract (BEA); and with microcapsules with polyphenols (MCBEA) and stored at 4 °C for 30 days. Results showed that the addition of polyphenols (free or microencapsulated) improved the chemical, microbiological and sensory stability of soymilk. The BEA and MCBEA had lower values of hydroperoxides, hexanal, bacterial growth, oxidised flavour, and sweet taste than C. The BEA exhibited higher phenol content (819.72 mg gallic acid equivalents/L), antioxidant activity (64.66% DPPH inhibition) and colour intensity than MCBEA. The study suggested that polyphenol microencapsulation is a procedure that can protect these sensitive compounds and control their release into this food matrix.

Real-time monitoring of biofilm growth identifies andrographolide as a potent antifungal compound eradicating Candida biofilms.

Candida species cause life-threatening infections with high morbidity and mortality rates and their resistance to conventional therapy is closely linked to biofilm formation. Thus, the development of new approaches to study Candida biofilms and the identification of novel therapeutic strategies could yield improved clinical outcomes. In the current study, we have set up an impedance-based in vitro system to study Candida spp. biofilms in real-time and to evaluate their sensitivity to two conventional antifungal groups used in clinical practice - azoles and echinocandins. Both fluconazole and voriconazole were unable to inhibit biofilm formation in most strains tested, while echinocandins showed biofilm inhibitory capacity at relatively low concentrations (starting from 0.625 mg/L). However, assays performed on 24 h Candida albicans and C. glabrata biofilms revealed that micafungin and caspofungin failed to eradicate mature biofilms at all tested concentrations, evidencing that once formed, Candida spp. biofilms are extremely difficult to eliminate using currently available antifungals. We then evaluated the antifungal and anti-biofilm effect of andrographolide, a natural compound isolated from the plant Andrographis paniculata with known antibiofilm activity on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Optical density measures, impedance evaluation, CFU counts, and electron microscopy data showed that andrographolide strongly inhibits planktonic Candida spp. growth and halts Candida spp. biofilm formation in a dose-dependent manner in all tested strains. Moreover, andrographolide was capable of eliminating mature biofilms and viable cell numbers by up to 99.9% in the C. albicans and C. glabrata strains tested, suggesting its potential as a new approach to treat multi-resistant Candida spp. biofilm-related infections.

Fungal diversity notes 1387-1511: taxonomic and phylogenetic contributions on genera and species of fungal taxa.

This article is the 13th contribution in the Fungal Diversity Notes series, wherein 125 taxa from four phyla, ten classes, 31 orders, 69 families, 92 genera and three genera incertae sedis are treated, demonstrating worldwide and geographic distribution. Fungal taxa described and illustrated in the present study include three new genera, 69 new species, one new combination, one reference specimen and 51 new records on new hosts and new geographical distributions. Three new genera, Cylindrotorula (Torulaceae), Scolecoleotia (Leotiales genus incertae sedis) and Xenovaginatispora (Lindomycetaceae) are introduced based on distinct phylogenetic lineages and unique morphologies. Newly described species are Aspergillus lannaensis, Cercophora dulciaquae, Cladophialophora aquatica, Coprinellus punjabensis, Cortinarius alutarius, C. mammillatus, C. quercoflocculosus, Coryneum fagi, Cruentomycena uttarakhandina, Cryptocoryneum rosae, Cyathus uniperidiolus, Cylindrotorula indica, Diaporthe chamaeropicola, Didymella azollae, Diplodia alanphillipsii, Dothiora coronicola, Efibula rodriguezarmasiae, Erysiphe salicicola, Fusarium queenslandicum, Geastrum gorgonicum, G. hansagiense, Helicosporium sexualis, Helminthosporium chiangraiensis, Hongkongmyces kokensis, Hydrophilomyces hydraenae, Hygrocybe boertmannii, Hyphoderma australosetigerum, Hyphodontia yunnanensis, Khaleijomyces umikazeana, Laboulbenia divisa, Laboulbenia triarthronis, Laccaria populina, Lactarius pallidozonarius, Lepidosphaeria strobelii, Longipedicellata megafusiformis, Lophiotrema lincangensis, Marasmius benghalensis, M. jinfoshanensis, M. subtropicus, Mariannaea camelliae, Melanographium smilaxii, Microbotryum polycnemoides, Mimeomyces digitatus, Minutisphaera thailandensis, Mortierella solitaria, Mucor harpali, Nigrograna jinghongensis, Odontia huanrenensis, O. parvispina, Paraconiothyrium ajrekarii, Parafuscosporella niloticus, Phaeocytostroma yomensis, Phaeoisaria synnematicus, Phanerochaete hainanensis, Pleopunctum thailandicum, Pleurotheciella dimorphospora, Pseudochaetosphaeronema chiangraiense, Pseudodactylaria albicolonia, Rhexoacrodictys nigrospora, Russula paravioleipes, Scolecoleotia eriocamporesi, Seriascoma honghense, Synandromyces makranczyi, Thyridaria aureobrunnea, Torula lancangjiangensis, Tubeufia longihelicospora, Wicklowia fusiformispora, Xenovaginatispora phichaiensis and Xylaria apiospora. One new combination, Pseudobactrodesmium stilboideus is proposed. A reference specimen of Comoclathris permunda is designated. New host or distribution records are provided for Acrocalymma fici, Aliquandostipite khaoyaiensis, Camarosporidiella laburni, Canalisporium caribense, Chaetoscutula juniperi, Chlorophyllum demangei, C. globosum, C. hortense, Cladophialophora abundans, Dendryphion hydei, Diaporthe foeniculina, D. pseudophoenicicola, D. pyracanthae, Dictyosporium pandanicola, Dyfrolomyces distoseptatus, Ernakulamia tanakae, Eutypa flavovirens, E. lata, Favolus septatus, Fusarium atrovinosum, F. clavum, Helicosporium luteosporum, Hermatomyces nabanheensis, Hermatomyces sphaericoides, Longipedicellata aquatica, Lophiostoma caudata, L. clematidis-vitalbae, Lophiotrema hydei, L. neoarundinaria, Marasmiellus palmivorus, Megacapitula villosa, Micropsalliota globocystis, M. gracilis, Montagnula thailandica, Neohelicosporium irregulare, N. parisporum, Paradictyoarthrinium diffractum, Phaeoisaria aquatica, Poaceascoma taiwanense, Saproamanita manicata, Spegazzinia camelliae, Submersispora variabilis, Thyronectria caudata, T. mackenziei, Tubeufia chiangmaiensis, T. roseohelicospora, Vaginatispora nypae, Wicklowia submersa, Xanthagaricus necopinatus and Xylaria haemorrhoidalis. The data presented herein are based on morphological examination of fresh specimens, coupled with analysis of phylogenetic sequence data to better integrate taxa into appropriate taxonomic ranks and infer their evolutionary relationships.

An Overview of 24 Years of Molecular Phylogenetic Studies in Phallales (Basidiomycota) With Notes on Systematics, Geographic Distribution, Lifestyle, and Edibility.

The order Phallales (Basidiomycota) is represented by gasteroid fungi with expanded and sequestrate basidiomata, known as stinkhorns and false truffles. In phalloids, the first DNA sequence was published in 1997, and after that, some studies aimed to resolve phylogenetic conflicts and propose new species based on DNA markers; however, the number of families and genera in the order still generates controversies among researchers. Thus, this work aims to provide an overview of Phallales diversity represented by selected DNA markers available in public databases. We retrieved Phallales sequences from DNA databases (GenBank and UNITE) of seven markers: ITS (internal transcribed spacer), nuc-LSU (nuclear large subunit rDNA), nuc-SSU (nuclear small subunit rDNA), mt-SSU (mitochondrial small subunit rDNA), ATP6 (ATPase subunit 6), RPB2 (nuclear protein-coding second largest subunit of RNA polymerase), and TEF1-α (translation elongation factor subunit 1α). To compose our final dataset, all ITS sequences retrieved were subjected to BLASTn searches to identify additional ITS sequences not classified as Phallales. Phylogenetic analyses based on Bayesian and maximum likelihood approaches using single and combined markers were conducted. All ITS sequences were clustered with a cutoff of 98% in order to maximize the number of species hypotheses. The geographic origin of sequences was retrieved, as well as additional information on species lifestyle and edibility. We obtained a total of 1,149 sequences, representing 664 individuals. Sequences of 41 individuals were unidentified at genus level and were assigned to five distinct families. We recognize seven families and 22 genera in Phallales, although the delimitation of some genera must be further revisited in order to recognize only monophyletic groups. Many inconsistencies in species identification are discussed, and the positioning of genera in each family is shown. The clustering revealed 118 species hypotheses, meaning that approximately 20% of all described species in Phallales have DNA sequences available. Information related to geographic distribution represents 462 individuals distributed in 46 countries on all continents, except Antarctica. Most genera are saprotrophic with only one putative ectomycorrhizal genus, and 2.1% of the legitimate specific names recognized in Phallales are confirmed edible species. Great progress in the molecular analyses of phalloids has already been made over these years, but it is still necessary to solve some taxonomic inconsistencies, mainly at genus level, and generate new data to expand knowledge of the group.

Correction: Figures of merit and statistics for detecting faulty species identification with DNA barcodes: A case study in Ramaria and related fungal genera.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237507.].

Linking morphological and molecular sources to disentangle the case of Xylodon australis.

The use of different sources of evidence has been recommended in order to conduct species delimitation analyses to solve taxonomic issues. In this study, we use a maximum likelihood framework to combine morphological and molecular traits to study the case of Xylodon australis (Hymenochaetales, Basidiomycota) using the locate.yeti function from the phytools R package. Xylodon australis has been considered a single species distributed across Australia, New Zealand and Patagonia. Multi-locus phylogenetic analyses were conducted to unmask the actual diversity under X. australis as well as the kinship relations respect their relatives. To assess the taxonomic position of each clade, locate.yeti function was used to locate in a molecular phylogeny the X. australis type material for which no molecular data was available using morphological continuous traits. Two different species were distinguished under the X. australis name, one from Australia-New Zealand and other from Patagonia. In addition, a close relationship with Xylodon lenis, a species from the South East of Asia, was confirmed for the Patagonian clade. We discuss the implications of our results for the biogeographical history of this genus and we evaluate the potential of this method to be used with historical collections for which molecular data is not available.

Figures of merit and statistics for detecting faulty species identification with DNA barcodes: A case study in Ramaria and related fungal genera.

DNA barcoding can identify biological species and provides an important tool in diverse applications, such as conserving species and identifying pathogens, among many others. If combined with statistical tests, DNA barcoding can focus taxonomic scrutiny onto anomalous species identifications based on morphological features. Accordingly, we put nonparametric tests into a taxonomic context to answer questions about our sequence dataset of the formal fungal barcode, the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS). For example, does DNA barcoding concur with annotated species identifications significantly better if expert taxonomists produced the annotations? Does species assignment improve significantly if sequences are restricted to lengths greater than 500 bp? Both questions require a figure of merit to measure of the accuracy of species identification, typically provided by the probability of correct identification (PCI). Many articles on DNA barcoding use variants of PCI to measure the accuracy of species identification, but do not provide the variants with names, and the absence of explicit names hinders the recognition that the different variants are not comparable from study to study. We provide four variant PCIs with a name and show that for fixed data they follow systematic inequalities. Despite custom, therefore, their comparison is at a minimum problematic. Some popular PCI variants are particularly vulnerable to errors in species annotation, insensitive to improvements in a barcoding pipeline, and unable to predict identification accuracy as a database grows, making them unsuitable for many purposes. Generally, the Fractional PCI has the best properties as a figure of merit for species identification. The fungal genus Ramaria provides unusual taxonomic difficulties. As a case study, it shows that a good taxonomic background can be combined with the pertinent summary statistics of molecular results to improve the identification of doubtful samples, linking both disciplines synergistically.

Diversity trapped in cages: Revision of Blumenavia Möller (Clathraceae, Basidiomycota) reveals three hidden species.

Basidiomata of Phallales have a diversified morphology with adhesive gleba that exudes an odor, usually unpleasant that attracts mainly insects, which disperse the basidiospores. The genus Blumenavia belongs to the family Clathraceae and, based on morphological features, only two species are currently recognized: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis. However, the morphological characters adopted in species delimitations within this genus are inconsistent, and molecular data are scarce. The present study aimed to review and identify informative characters that contribute to the delimitation of Blumenavia species. Exsiccates from America and Africa were analyzed morphologically, and molecularly, using ITS, LSU, ATP6, RPB2 and TEF-1α markers for Maximum Parsimony, Bayesian and Maximum likelihood analyses, and also for coalescent based species delimitations (BP&P), as well as for bPTP, PhyloMap, Topo-phylogenetic and Geophylogenetic reconstructions. According to our studies, seven species can be considered in the genus: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis are maintained, B. usambarensis and B. toribiotalpaensis are reassessed, and three new species are proposed, B. baturitensis Melanda, M.P. Martín & Baseia, sp. nov., B. crucis-hellenicae G. Coelho, Sulzbacher, Grebenc & Cortez, sp. nov., and B. heroica Melanda, Baseia & M.P. Martín, sp. nov. Blumenavia rhacodes is typified by selecting a lectotype and an epitype. Macromorphological characters considered informative to segregate and delimit the species through integrative taxonomy include length of the basidiomata, color, width and presence of grooves on each arm as well as the glebifer position and shape. These must be clearly observed while the basidiomata are still fresh. Since most materials are usually analyzed after dehydration and deposit in collections, field techniques and protocols to describe fugacious characters from fresh specimen are demanded, as well as the use of molecular analysis, in order to better assess recognition and delimitation of species in Blumenavia.

Longistriata flava (Boletaceae, Basidiomycota) - a new monotypic sequestrate genus and species from Brazilian Atlantic Forest.

A new monotypic sequestrate genus, Longistriata is described based on collections from the Neotropical forest of Atlantic forest in Paraíba, Northeast Brazil - an area known for its high degree of endemism. The striking features of this new fungus are the hypogeous habit, the vivid yellow peridium in mature basidiomes, broadly ellipsoid basidiospores with a distinct wall that is ornamented with longitudinal striations and lageniform cystidia with rounded apices. Phylogenetic analysis, based on LSU and tef-1α regions, showed that the type species, Longistriata flava, is phylogenetically sister to the monotypic sequestrate African genus Mackintoshia in Boletaceae. Together these two species formed the earliest diverging lineage in the subfamily Zangioideae. Longistriata flava is found in nutrient-poor white sand habitats where plants in the genera Coccoloba (Polygonaceae) and Guapira (Nyctaginaceae) are the only potential ectomycorrhizal host symbionts.

Behind the veil - exploring the diversity in Phallus indusiatus s.l. (Phallomycetidae, Basidiomycota).

Studies have demonstrated that many cosmopolitan species actually consist of divergent clades that present high levels of morphological stasis throughout their evolutionary histories. Phallus indusiatus s.l. has been described as a circum-tropical species. However, this distribution may actually reflect the lack of taxonomic resolution due to the small number of diagnostic morphological characters, which leads to the identification of new records as populations of P. indusiatus. Here, we examine the diversity of P. indusiatus-like species in Brazilian Amazonia. We show a clear congruence between detailed morphological data and ITS, nuc-LSU and atp6 based phylogenetic analyses and three new species are described within the Brazilian indusiate clade. These results highlight the importance of more detailed investigation, with the inclusion of molecular information, in Neotropical fungi.

Hidden fungal diversity from the Neotropics: Geastrum hirsutum, G. schweinitzii (Basidiomycota, Geastrales) and their allies.

Taxonomy of Geastrum species in the neotropics has been subject to divergent opinions among specialists. In our study, type collections were reassessed and compared with recent collections in order to delimit species in Geastrum, sect. Myceliostroma, subsect. Epigaea. A thorough review of morphologic features combined with barcode and phylogenetic analyses (ITS and LSU nrDNA) revealed six new species (G. neoamericanum, G. rubellum, G. brunneocapillatum, G. baculicrystallum, G. rubropusillum and G. courtecuissei). In additon, the presence of hairs on the exoperidium, a commonly used feature to diagnose Geastrum species, proved to be ineffective because it is a derived character within subsect. Epigaea.

Addressing the diversity of Xylodon raduloides complex through integrative taxonomy.

In this study, the taxonomic diversity of the Xylodon raduloides species complex (Hymenochaetales, Basidiomycota) is examined. Specimens were studied using an integrative taxonomic approach that includes molecular phylogenetic and morphological analyses, and environmental niche comparisons. Four different species were found inside the Xylodon raduloides complex, with a biogeographic distribution pattern bound by geographic regions: Europe, North America, Patagonia, and Australia-New Zealand. Molecular, morphological, and environmental evidences delimit two lineages within this complex: a Northern Hemisphere clade with longer basidiospores and wider ranges in temperature and precipitation tolerance, and a Southern Hemisphere clade with smaller and more spherical basidiospores, and an isothermal and more humid climate preference. The integrative taxonomic approach used in this study demonstrates congruence between data sets and shows how morphological and environmental characteristics contribute to the differentiation of fungal species complexes. By combining various sources of taxonomic information, three new species are described: Xylodon laurentianus, X. novozelandicus, and X. patagonicus.

Multilocus phylogeny reveals taxonomic misidentification of the Schizoporaparadoxa (KUC8140) representative genome.

Schizoporaparadoxa, current name Xylodonparadoxus, is a white-rot fungus with certain useful biotechnological properties. The representative genome of Schizoporaparadoxa strain KUC8140 was published in 2015 as part of the 1000 Fungal Genomes Project. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses, based on three nuclear regions (ITS, LSU and rpb2), confirmed a misidentification of S.paradoxa strain KUC8140 which should be identified as Xylodonovisporus. This wrong identification explains the unexpected geographical distribution of S.paradoxa, since this species has a European distribution, whereas the strain KUC8140 was recorded from Korea, Eastern Asia.

Antioxidant Stability Study of Oregano Essential Oil Microcapsules Prepared by Spray-Drying.

Release kinetics of the volatile compounds of oregano EO microcapsules and the relation with the antioxidant activity were studied. Different wall material (WM) to core (C) ratios (1:1 and 2:1; WM:C), addition of colloidal silicon dioxide (CSD); and different storage conditions: 23 °C (room temperature; R) and 4 °C (fridge temperature; F) were evaluated for 90 d. Volatile compounds, total phenolic content (TPC), free radical scavenging activity (FRSA), and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) were measured. The formulas 2:1 (WM:C) (R and F) without CSD behaved differently from the rest, exhibited a higher antioxidant activity, and released less amount of volatile compounds after 90 d. These treatments grouped together in the cluster analysis, showing the highest TPC (81.54 mg gallic ac/g), FRSA (8.66%), and TEAC (12.35 µg Trolox/g). The addition of CSD facilitated the released of volatile compounds through storage time and promoted losses in the antioxidant activity. The temperature had a significant effect in most of the evaluated variables. However, this effect was more noticeable in F2 (1:1, CSD). PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Oregano essential oil has antioxidant, antimicrobial, and sensory preserving properties. However, it is susceptible to volatilization and is degraded by external factors. Its addition into food matrices is restricted due to low solubility and hydrophobicity. The antioxidant activity of oregano EO is preserved after the process of microencapsulation by spray-drying that extends its stability during storage. Oregano EO microcapsules are an alternative of delivery which protects and extends the shelf life of this essential oil, overcomes stability related limitations and preserves its desirable characteristics allowing these kind of microcapsules to be later incorporated into food products. These microcapsules could be used as a natural additive/flavouring with antioxidant properties.

More than one fungus in the pepper pot: Integrative taxonomy unmasks hidden species within Myriostoma coliforme (Geastraceae, Basidiomycota).

Since the nineteenth century, Myriostoma has been regarded as a monotypic genus with a widespread distribution in north temperate and subtropical regions. However, on the basis of morphological characters and phylogenetic evidence of DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the large subunit nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (LSU), four species are now delimited: M. areolatum comb. & stat. nov., M. calongei sp. nov., M. capillisporum comb. & stat. nov., and M. coliforme. Myriostoma coliforme is typified by selecting a lectotype (iconotype) and a modern sequenced collection as an epitype. The four species can be discriminated by a combination of morphological characters, such as stomatal form, endoperidial surface texture, and basidiospore size and ornamentation.

Discovery or Extinction of New Scleroderma Species in Amazonia?

The Amazon Forest is a hotspot of biodiversity harboring an unknown number of undescribed taxa. Inventory studies are urgent, mainly in the areas most endangered by human activities such as extensive dam construction, where species could be in risk of extinction before being described and named. In 2015, intensive studies performed in a few locations in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest revealed three new species of the genus Scleroderma: S. anomalosporum, S. camassuense and S. duckei. The two first species were located in one of the many areas flooded by construction of hydroelectric dams throughout the Amazon; and the third in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, a protected reverse by the INPA. The species were identified through morphology and molecular analyses of barcoding sequences (Internal Transcribed Spacer nrDNA). Scleroderma anomalosporum is characterized mainly by the smooth spores under LM in mature basidiomata (under SEM with small, unevenly distributed granules, a characteristic not observed in other species of the genus), the large size of the basidiomata, up to 120 mm diameter, and the stelliform dehiscence; S. camassuense mainly by the irregular to stellate dehiscence, the subreticulated spores and the bright sulfur-yellow colour, and Scleroderma duckei mainly by the verrucose exoperidium, stelliform dehiscence, and verrucose spores. Description, illustration and affinities with other species of the genus are provided.

The relation of fibrosis stage with nutritional deficiencies and bioelectrical impedance analysis of body composition in patients with chronic hepatitis C.

UNLABELLED:  Background. Nutritional deficiencies may aggravate the course of chronic hepatitis C (CHC). Our aim has been to perform a comprehensive analysis of body composition and nutritional deficiencies in CHC patients in non-cirrhotic and compensated cirrhotic stages to correlate the detected deficiencies with the fibrosis stage. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Body multifrequency bioimpedance analysis (BIA) and a wide and simultaneous analytical profile were prospectively performed in 74 CHC patients (36 male) with known METAVIR fibrosis stage established with liver biopsy or transient elastography. Results were analyzed to identify deviations from the normal range and variations according to the fibrosis stage. RESULTS: Body fat compartment was greater in women. Body composition did not change among the 4 stages of liver fibrosis. Low levels (< 30 µg/L) of vitamin D were detected in 74.3% of patients irrespective of the fibrosis stage. Most analytical results remained into the normal range with the exceptions of thrombocytopenia and vitamin A deficiency, that were limited to the stage 4 of fibrosis, and low Zn and LDL-cholesterol values, that were frequently found in patients with advanced (F3 and F4) fibrosis stage. CONCLUSION: Body composition and most biochemical parameters, including cyanocobalamin, folic acid and vitamin E, are well preserved in compensated patients with CHC, with the exception of generalized vitamin D insufficiency and of deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc that are restricted to the more advanced, although still compensated, stages of the disease.

Molecular and morphological analyses confirm Rhizopogon verii as a widely distributed ectomycorrhizal false truffle in Europe, and its presence in South America.

The genus Rhizopogon includes species with hypogeous or subepigeus habit, forming ectomycorrhizae with naturally occurring or planted pines (Pinaceae). Species of the genus Rhizopogon can be distinguished easily from the other hypogeous basidiomycetes by their lacunose gleba without columella and their smooth elliptical spores; however, the limit between species is not always easy to establish. Rhizopogon luteolus, the type species of the genus, has been considered one of the species that are more abundant in Europe, as well as it has been cited in pine plantation of North and South America, different parts of Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. However, in this study, based on molecular analyses of the ITS nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) sequences (19 new sequences; 37 sequences from GenBank/UNITE, including those from type specimens), we prove that many GenBank sequences under R. luteolus were misidentified and correspond to Rhizopogon verii, a species described from Tunisia. Also, we confirm that basidiomes and ectomycorrhizae recently collected in Germany under Pinus sylvestris, as well as specimens from South of Brazil under Pinus taeda belong to R. verii. Thanks to the numerous ectomycorrhizal tips collected in Germany, a complete description of R. verii/P. sylvestris ectomycorrhiza is provided. Moreover, since in this paper the presence of R. verii in South America is here reported for the first time, a short description of basidiomes collected in Brazil, compared with collections located in different European herbaria, is included.

Combining morphological and phylogenetic analyses to unravel systematics in Geastrum sect. Schmidelia.

Systematics of the recently proposed Geastrum sect. Schmidelia are addressed through statistical analyses of quantitative morphological variables and phylogenetic reconstructions based on a multilocus approach. Emphasis is given to the taxonomic placement of G. schmidelii var. parvisporum. This variety is found to be not phylogenetically close to G. schmidelii var. schmidelii, the type species of G. sect. Schmidelia, and it therefore is excluded from this section, taxonomically raised to species rank (as G. parvisporum) and included as a member of G. sect. Hariotia. A second species in G. sect. Schmidelia is recognized and formally described as G. senoretiae. It is characterized by small basidiomata, non-hygrometric exoperidium, subsessile endoperidium and finely plicate, indistinctly delimited peristome, so far known only from Spain. Photographs and drawings are included, along with a comparison of morphologically close taxa. The presence of sclerified basidia in the mature gleba, previously not reported in the genus, is commented on.

Species identification in the genus Saprolegnia (Oomycetes): defining DNA-based molecular operational taxonomic units.

The lack of a robust taxonomy in the genus Saprolegnia is leading to the presence of incorrectly named isolates in culture collections and of an increasing number of misassigned sequences in DNA databases. Accurate species delimitation is critical for most biological disciplines. A recently proposed approach to solve species delimitation (taxonomic diagnosis system) of difficult organisms is the definition of molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). We have used 961 sequences of nrDNA ITS from culture collections (461 sequences) and GenBank (500 sequences), to perform phylogenetic and clustering optimization analyses. As result, we have identified 29 DNA-based MOTUs in agreement with phylogenetic studies. The resulting molecular clusters support the validity of 18 species of Saprolegnia and identify 11 potential new ones. We have also listed a number of incorrectly named isolates in culture collections, misassigned species names to GenBank sequences, and reference sequences for the species. We conclude that GenBank represents the main source of errors for identifying Saprolegnia species since it possesses sequences with misassigned names and also sequencing errors. The presented taxonomic diagnosis system might help setting the basis for a suitable identification of species in this economically important genus.