Quantifying the impact of an invasive Hornet on Bombus terrestris Colonies.

The invasive hornet Vespa velutina nigrithorax is considered a proliferating threat to pollinators in Europe and Asia. While the impact of this species on managed honey bees is well-documented, effects upon other pollinator populations remain poorly understood. Nonetheless, dietary analyses indicate that the hornets consume a diversity of prey, fuelling concerns for at-risk taxa. Here, we quantify the impact of V. velutina upon standardised commercially-reared colonies of the European bumblebee, Bombus terrestris terrestris. Using a landscape-scale experimental design, we deploy colonies across a gradient of local V. velutina densities, utilising automated tracking to non-invasively observe bee and hornet behaviour, and quantify subsequent effects upon colony outcomes. Our results demonstrate that hornets frequently hunt at B. terrestris colonies, being preferentially attracted to those with high foraging traffic, and engaging in repeated-yet entirely unsuccessful-predation attempts at nest entrances. Notably however, we show that B. terrestris colony weights are negatively associated with local V. velutina densities, indicating potential indirect effects upon colony growth. Taken together, these findings provide the first empirical insight into impacts on bumblebees at the colony level, and inform future mitigation efforts for wild and managed pollinators.

Frequent Parasitism of Apis mellifera by Trypanosomatids in Geographically Isolated Areas with Restricted Beekeeping Movements.

Trypanosomatids form a group of high prevalence protozoa that parasitise honey bees, with Lotmaria passim as the predominant species worldwide. However, the knowledge about the ecology of trypanosomatids in isolated areas is limited. The Portuguese archipelagos of Madeira and Azores provide an interesting setting to investigate these parasites because of their geographic isolation, and because they harbour honey bee populations devoid of two major enemies: Varroa destructor and Nosema ceranae. Hence, a total of 661 honey bee colonies from Madeira and the Azores were analysed using different molecular techniques, through which we found a high prevalence of trypanosomatids despite the isolation of these islands. L. passim was the predominant species and, in most colonies, was the only one found, even on islands free of V. destructor and/or N. ceranae with severe restrictions on colony movements to prevent the spread of them. However, islands with V. destructor had a significantly higher prevalence of L. passim and, conversely, islands with N. ceranae did not shown any significant correlation with the trypanosomatid. Crithidia bombi was detected in Madeira and on three islands of the Azores, almost always coincident with L. passim. By contrast, Crithidia mellificae was not detected in any sample. A high-throughput sequencing analysis distinguished two main haplotypes of L. passim, which accounted for 98% of the total sequence reads. This work suggests that L. passim and C. bombi are parasites that have been associated with honey bees predating the spread of V. destructor and N. ceranae.

Effectiveness of electric harps in reducing Vespa velutina predation pressure and consequences for honey bee colony development.

BACKGROUND: Vespa velutina has become a species of concern in invaded regions of Europe and Asia, due to its impacts on biodiversity, apiculture and society. This hornet, a ferocious hunter of pollinating insects, poses a serious threat to biodiversity and pollination services. Despite ongoing efforts, its extermination in continental Europe is hampered by a lack of effective control methods, thus effective mitigation measures are primary concerns. The aims of this work were: (i) to study the effects of V. velutina predating on honey bee colonies, and (ii) to assess the effectiveness of electric harps in reducing hunting pressure and predation. We assessed the predation pressure and compared honey bee colony performance, body weight of workers, and winter survivorship for protected versus unprotected colonies in 36 experimental hives across three apiaries. RESULTS: Electric harps protected honey bees by reducing predation pressure and therefore mitigating foraging paralysis. Consequently, foraging activity, pollen income, brood production and worker body weight were higher in protected colonies which in turn showed greater winter survivorship than those that were unprotected, especially at sites with intermediate to high levels of predation. CONCLUSION: The predation of V. velutina affects foraging activity, breeding, body weight and colony survivorship of Apis mellifera. Electric harps contribute significantly to mitigate the impact of this invasive hornet on apiaries; however, they should be deployed in tandem with additional measures to preserve honey bee colony stocks, such as facilitating access to food sources for colonies during the periods of highest predation pressure. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Bee Trypanosomatids: First Steps in the Analysis of the Genetic Variation and Population Structure of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia bombi and Crithidia mellificae.

Trypanosomatids are among the most prevalent parasites in bees but, despite the fact that their impact on the colonies can be quite important and that their infectivity may potentially depend on their genotypes, little is known about the population diversity of these pathogens. Here we cloned and sequenced three non-repetitive single copy loci (DNA topoisomerase II, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and RNA polymerase II large subunit, RPB1) to produce new genetic data from Crithidia bombi, C. mellificae and Lotmaria passim isolated from honeybees and bumblebees. These were analysed by applying population genetic tools in order to quantify and compare their variability within and between species, and to obtain information on their demography and population structure. The general pattern for the three species was that (1) they were subject to the action of purifying selection on nonsynonymous variants, (2) the levels of within species diversity were similar irrespective of the host, (3) there was evidence of recombination among haplotypes and (4) they showed no haplotype structuring according to the host. C. bombi exhibited the lowest levels of synonymous variation (πS= 0.06 ± 0.04 %) - and a mutation frequency distribution compatible with a population expansion after a bottleneck - that contrasted with the extensive polymorphism displayed by C. mellificae (πS= 2.24 ± 1.00 %), which likely has a more ancient origin. L. passim showed intermediate values (πS= 0.40 ± 0.28 %) and an excess of variants a low frequencies probably linked to the spread of this species to new geographical areas.

Residual Tau-Fluvalinate in Honey Bee Colonies Is Coupled with Evidence for Selection for Varroa destructor Resistance to Pyrethroids.

Varroa destructor is considered one of the most devastating parasites of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, and a major problem for the beekeeping industry. Currently, the main method to control Varroa mites is the application of drugs that contain different acaricides as active ingredients. The pyrethroid tau-fluvalinate is one of the acaricides most widely used in beekeeping due to its efficacy and low toxicity to bees. However, the intensive and repetitive application of this compound produces a selective pressure that, when maintained over time, contributes to the emergence of resistant mites in the honey bee colonies, compromising the acaricidal treatments efficacy. Here we studied the presence of tau-fluvalinate residues in hives and the evolution of genetic resistance to this acaricide in Varroa mites from honey bee colonies that received no pyrethroid treatment in the previous four years. Our data revealed the widespread and persistent tau-fluvalinate contamination of beeswax and beebread in hives, an overall increase of the pyrethroid resistance allele frequency and a generalized excess of resistant mites relative to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations. These results suggest that tau-fluvalinate contamination in the hives may seriously compromise the efficacy of pyrethroid-based mite control methods.

Identification of pathogens in the invasive hornet Vespa velutina and in native Hymenoptera (Apidae, Vespidae) from SW-Europe.

Invasive species contribute to deteriorate the health of ecosystems due to their direct effects on native fauna and the local parasite-host dynamics. We studied the potential impact of the invasive hornet Vespa velutina on the European parasite-host system by comparing the patterns of diversity and abundance of pathogens (i.e. Microsporidia: Nosematidae; Euglenozoa: Trypanosomatidae and Apicomplexa: Lipotrophidae) in European V. velutina specimens with those in the native European hornet Vespa crabro, as well as other common Hymenoptera (genera Vespula, Polistes and Bombus). We show that (i) V. velutina harbours most common hymenopteran enteropathogens as well as several new parasitic taxa. (ii) Parasite diversity in V. velutina is most similar to that of V. crabro. (iii) No unambiguous evidence of pathogen release by V. velutina was detected. This evidence together with the extraordinary population densities that V. velutina reaches in Europe (around of 100,000 individuals per km2 per year), mean that this invasive species could severely alter the native pathogen-host dynamics either by actively contributing to the dispersal of the parasites and/or by directly interacting with them, which could have unexpected long-term harmful consequences on the native entomofauna.

Wide diversity of parasites in Bombus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) revealed by a high-throughput sequencing approach.

Assessing the extent of parasite diversity requires the application of appropriate molecular tools, especially given the growing evidence of multiple parasite co-occurrence. Here, we compared the performance of a next-generation sequencing technology (Ion PGM ™ System) in 12 Bombus terrestris specimens that were PCR-identified as positive for trypanosomatids (Leishmaniinae) in a previous study. These bumblebees were also screened for the occurrence of Nosematidae and Neogregarinorida parasites using both classical protocols (either specific PCR amplification or amplification with broad-range primers plus Sanger sequencing) and Ion PGM sequencing. The latter revealed higher parasite diversity within individuals, especially among Leishmaniinae (which were present as a combination of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Crithidia bombi), and the occurrence of taxa never reported in these hosts: Crithidia acanthocephali and a novel neogregarinorida species. Furthermore, the complementary results produced by the different sets of primers highlighted the convenience of using multiple markers to minimize the chance of some target organisms going unnoticed. Altogether, the deep sequencing methodology offered a more comprehensive way to investigate parasite diversity than the usual identification methods and provided new insights whose importance for bumblebee health should be further analysed.

Experimental evidence of harmful effects of Crithidia mellificae and Lotmaria passim on honey bees.

The trypanosomatids Crithidia mellificae and Lotmaria passim are very prevalent in honey bee colonies and potentially contribute to colony losses that currently represent a serious threat to honey bees. However, potential pathogenicity of these trypanosomatids remains unclear and since studies of infection are scarce, there is little information about the virulence of their different morphotypes. Hence, we first cultured C. mellificae and L. passim (ATCC reference strains) in six different culture media to analyse their growth rates and to obtain potentially infective morphotypes. Both C. mellificae and L. passim grew in five of the media tested, with the exception of M199. These trypanosomatids multiplied fastest in BHI medium, in which they reached a stationary phase after around 96 h of growth. Honey bees inoculated with either Crithidia or Lotmaria died faster than control bees and their mortality was highest when they were inoculated with 96 h cultured L. passim. Histological and Electron Microscopy analyses revealed flagellated morphotypes of Crithidia and Lotmaria in the lumen of the ileum, and adherent non-flagellated L. passim morphotypes covering the epithelium, although no lesions were evident. These data indicate that parasitic forms of these trypanosomatids obtained from the early stationary growth phase infect honey bees. Therefore, efficient infection can be achieved to study their intra-host development and to assess the potential pathogenicity of these trypanosomatids.

Longitudinal analysis on parasite diversity in honeybee colonies: new taxa, high frequency of mixed infections and seasonal patterns of variation.

To evaluate the influence that parasites have on the losses of Apis mellifera it is essential to monitor their presence in the colonies over time. Here we analysed the occurrence of nosematids, trypanosomatids and neogregarines in five homogeneous colonies for up to 21 months until they collapsed. The study, which combined the use of several molecular markers with the application of a massive parallel sequencing technology, provided valuable insights into the epidemiology of these parasites: (I) it enabled the detection of parasite species rarely reported in honeybees (Nosema thomsoni, Crithidia bombi, Crithidia acanthocephali) and the identification of two novel taxa; (II) it revealed the existence of a high rate of co-infections (80% of the samples harboured more than one parasite species); (III) it uncovered an identical pattern of seasonal variation for nosematids and trypanosomatids, that was different from that of neogregarines; (IV) it showed that there were no significant differences in the fraction of positive samples, nor in the levels of species diversity, between interior and exterior bees; and (V) it unveiled that the variation in the number of parasite species was not directly linked with the failure of the colonies.

The toxic unit approach as a risk indicator in honey bees surveillance programmes: A case of study in Apis mellifera iberiensis.

The influence of genetic diversity and exposure to xenobiotics on the prevalence of pathogens was studied within the context of a voluntary epidemiological study in Spanish apiaries of Apis mellifera iberiensis, carried out during the spring season of years 2014 and 2015. As such, the evolutionary lineages of the honey bee colonies were identified, a multiresidue analysis of xenobiotics was carried out in beebread and worker bee samples, and the Toxic Unit (TUm) was estimated for each sampled apiary. The relationship between lineages and the most prevalent pathogens (Nosema ceranae, Varroa destructor, trypanosomatids, Black Queen Cell Virus; and Deformed Wing Virus) was analysed with contingency tables, and the possible relationships between TUm and the prevalence of these pathogens were studied by using a factor analysis. The statistical analysis supported the associations between V. destructor and Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), and between N. ceranae and Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), but the association between these pathogens and trypanosomatids was not observed. TUm values varied between 5.5 × 10-6 and 3.65 × 10-1. When TUm < 3.35 × 10-4, it was mainly determined by coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate and/or chlorfenvinphos. At higher values, other insecticides also contributed to TUm, although a clear predominance was not seen up to TUm ≥ 1.83 × 10-2, when it was mainly defined by acrinathrin, spinosad and/or imidacloprid. The possible cumulative effect from the joint action of xenobiotics was >10% in the 63% of the cases. The prevalence of pathogens did not appear to be influenced by the distribution of evolutionary lineages and, while the prevalence of V. destructor was not found to be determined by TUm, there was a trend towards an increasing prevalence of N. ceranae when TUm ≥ 23 10-4. This study is an example of using TUm approach beyond the field of the ecotoxicology.

A new multiplex PCR protocol to detect mixed trypanosomatid infections in species of Apis and Bombus.

Trypanosomatids are highly prevalent pathogens of Hymenoptera; however, most molecular methods used to detect them in Apis and Bombus spp. do not allow the identification of the infecting species, which then becomes expensive and time consuming. To overcome this drawback, we developed a multiplex PCR protocol to readily identify in a single reaction the main trypanosomatids present in these hymenopterans (Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Crithidia bombi), which will facilitate the study of their epidemiology and transmission dynamics. A battery of primers, designed to simultaneously amplify fragments of the RNA polymerase II large subunit (RPB1) of L. passim, the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) of C. mellificae and the DNA topoisomerase II (TOPII) of C. bombi, was tested for target specificity under single and mixed template conditions using DNA extracted from cell cultures (L. passim ATCC PRA403; C. mellificae ATCC 30254) and from a bumblebee specimen infected with C. bombi only (14_349). Once validated, the performance of the method was assessed using DNA extractions from seven Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758) and five Bombus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) field samples infected with trypanosomatids whose identity had been previously determined by PCR-cloning and sequencing (P-C-S). The new method confirmed the results obtained by P-C-S: two of the honeybee samples were parasitized by L. passim, C. mellificae and C. bombi at the same time, whereas the other five were infected with L. passim only. The method confirmed the simultaneous presence of L. passim and C. mellificae in two B. terrestris, where these parasites had not previously been reported.

Strong genetic structure revealed by multilocus patterns of variation in Giardia duodenalis isolates of patients from Galicia (NW-Iberian Peninsula).

We report a survey of genetic variation at three coding loci in Giardia duodenalis of assemblages A and B obtained from stool samples of patients from Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, NW-Iberian Peninsula). The mean pooled synonymous diversity for assemblage A was nearly five times lower than for assemblage B (0.77%±0.30% and 4.14%±1.65%, respectively). Synonymous variation in both assemblages was in mutation-drift equilibrium and an excess of low-frequency nonsynonymous variants suggested the action of purifying selection at the three loci. Differences between isolates contributed to 40% and 60% of total genetic variance in assemblages A and B, respectively, which revealed a significant genetic structure. These results, together with the lack of evidence for recombination, support that (i) Giardia assemblages A and B are in demographic equilibrium and behave as two genetically isolated populations, (ii) infections are initiated by a reduced number of individuals, which may be genetically diverse and even belong to different assemblages, and (iii) parasites reproduce clonally within the host. However, the observation of invariant loci in some isolates means that mechanisms for the homogenization of the genetic content of the two diploid nuclei in each individual must exist.

Whole genome sequencing of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus; Pleuronectiformes): a fish adapted to demersal life.

The turbot is a flatfish (Pleuronectiformes) with increasing commercial value, which has prompted active genomic research aimed at more efficient selection. Here we present the sequence and annotation of the turbot genome, which represents a milestone for both boosting breeding programmes and ascertaining the origin and diversification of flatfish. We compare the turbot genome with model fish genomes to investigate teleost chromosome evolution. We observe a conserved macrosyntenic pattern within Percomorpha and identify large syntenic blocks within the turbot genome related to the teleost genome duplication. We identify gene family expansions and positive selection of genes associated with vision and metabolism of membrane lipids, which suggests adaptation to demersal lifestyle and to cold temperatures, respectively. Our data indicate a quick evolution and diversification of flatfish to adapt to benthic life and provide clues for understanding their controversial origin. Moreover, we investigate the genomic architecture of growth, sex determination and disease resistance, key traits for understanding local adaptation and boosting turbot production, by mapping candidate genes and previously reported quantitative trait loci. The genomic architecture of these productive traits has allowed the identification of candidate genes and enriched pathways that may represent useful information for future marker-assisted selection in turbot.

Screening of repetitive motifs inside the genome of the flat oyster (Ostrea edulis): Transposable elements and short tandem repeats.

The flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is one of the most appreciated molluscs in Europe, but its production has been greatly reduced by the parasite Bonamia ostreae. Here, new generation genomic resources were used to analyse the repetitive fraction of the oyster genome, with the aim of developing molecular markers to face this main oyster production challenge. The resulting oyster database, consists of two sets of 10,318 and 7159 unique contigs (4.8 Mbp and 6.8 Mbp in total length) representing the oyster's genome (WG) and haemocyte transcriptome (HT), respectively. A total of 1083 sequences were identified as TE-derived, which corresponded to 4.0% of WG and 1.1% of HT. They were clustered into 142 homology groups, most of which were assigned to the Penelope order of retrotransposons, and to the Helitron and TIR DNA-transposons. Simple repeats and rRNA pseudogenes, also made a significant contribution to the oyster's genome (0.5% and 0.3% of WG and HT, respectively).The most frequent short tandem repeats identified in WG were tetranucleotide motifs while trinucleotide motifs were in HT. Forty identified microsatellite loci, 20 from each database, were selected for technical validation. Success was much lower among WG than HT microsatellites (15% vs 55%), which could reflect higher variation in anonymous regions interfering with primer annealing. All microsatellites developed adjusted to Hardy-Weinberg proportions and represent a useful tool to support future breeding programmes and to manage genetic resources of natural flat oyster beds.

Evolutionary history of the Azteca-like mariner transposons and their host ants.

Three different complete mariner elements were found in the genome of the ant Tapinoma nigerrimum. One (Tnigmar-Mr) was interrupted by a 900-bp insertion that corresponded to an incomplete member of a fourth mariner element, called Azteca. In this work, we isolate and characterize full-length Tnigmar-Az elements in T. nigerrimum. The purpose of this study is to clarify the evolutionary history of Azteca elements and their hosts as well as the possible existence of horizontal transfer processes. For this, Azteca-like elements were also retrieved from the available sequences of various ant genomes, representing four different ant subfamilies: Dolichoderinae, Formicinae, Myrmicinae, and Ponerinae. The tree topology resulting for the Azteca-like elements bore very little resemblance to that of their respective hosts. The pervasive presence of Azteca-like elements in all ant genomes, together with the observation that extant copies are usually younger than the genomes that host them, could be explained either by lineage sorting or by recent horizontal transfer of active elements. However, the finding of closer genetic relationships between elements than between the ants that host them is consistent with the latter scenario. This is clearly observed in Sinvmar-Az, Tnigmar-Az, Acepmar-Az, and Cflomar-Az elements, suggesting the existence of horizontal transfer processes. On the contrary, some elements displayed more divergence than did the hosts harboring them. This may reflect either further horizontal transfer events or random lineage sorting.

Evidence for weak genetic recombination at the PTP2 locus of Nosema ceranae.

The microsporidian Nosema ceranae is an emergent pathogen that threatens the health of honeybees and other pollinators all over the world. Its recent rapid spread across a wide variety of host species and environments demonstrated an enhanced ability of adaptation, which seems to contradict the lack of evidence for genetic recombination and the absence of a sexual stage in its life cycle. Here we retrieved fresh data of the patterns of genetic variation at the PTP2 locus in naturally infected Apis mellifera colonies, by means of single genome amplification. This technique, designed to prevent the formation of chimeric haplotypes during polymerase chain reaction (PCR), provides more reliable estimates of the diversity levels and haplotype structure than standard PCR-cloning methods. Our results are consistent with low but significant rates of recombination in the history of the haplotypes detected: estimates of the population recombination rate are of the order of 30 and support recent evidence for unexpectedly high levels of variation of the parasites within honeybee colonies. These observations suggest the existence of a diploid stage at some point in the life cycle of this parasite and are relevant for our understanding of the dynamics of its expanding population.

Population Genetics of Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae: One Host (Apis mellifera) and Two Different Histories.

Two microsporidians are known to infect honey bees: Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Whereas population genetics data for the latter have been released in the last few years, such information is still missing for N. apis. Here we analyze the patterns of nucleotide polymorphism at three single-copy loci (PTP2, PTP3 and RPB1) in a collection of Apis mellifera isolates from all over the world, naturally infected either with N. apis (N = 22) or N. ceranae (N = 23), to provide new insights into the genetic diversity, demography and evolution of N. apis, as well as to compare them with evidence from N. ceranae. Neutral variation in N. apis and N. ceranae is of the order of 1%. This amount of diversity suggests that there is no substantial differentiation between the genetic content of the two nuclei present in these parasites, and evidence for genetic recombination provides a putative mechanism for the flow of genetic information between chromosomes. The analysis of the frequency spectrum of neutral variants reveals a significant surplus of low frequency variants, particularly in N. ceranae, and suggests that the populations of the two pathogens are not in mutation-drift equilibrium and that they have experienced a population expansion. Most of the variation in both species occurs within honey bee colonies (between 62%-90% of the total genetic variance), although in N. apis there is evidence for differentiation between parasites isolated from distinct A. mellifera lineages (20%-34% of the total variance), specifically between those collected from lineages A and C (or M). This scenario is consistent with a long-term host-parasite relationship and contrasts with the lack of differentiation observed among host-lineages in N. ceranae (< 4% of the variance), which suggests that the spread of this emergent pathogen throughout the A. mellifera worldwide population is a recent event.

Holistic screening of collapsing honey bee colonies in Spain: a case study.

BACKGROUND: Here we present a holistic screening of collapsing colonies from three professional apiaries in Spain. Colonies with typical honey bee depopulation symptoms were selected for multiple possible factors to reveal the causes of collapse. RESULTS: Omnipresent were Nosema ceranae and Lake Sinai Virus. Moderate prevalences were found for Black Queen Cell Virus and trypanosomatids, whereas Deformed Wing Virus, Aphid Lethal Paralysis Virus strain Brookings and neogregarines were rarely detected. Other viruses, Nosema apis, Acarapis woodi and Varroa destructor were not detected. Palinologic study of pollen demonstrated that all colonies were foraging on wild vegetation. Consequently, the pesticide residue analysis was negative for neonicotinoids. The genetic analysis of trypanosomatids GAPDH gene, showed that there is a large genetic distance between Crithidia mellificae ATCC30254, an authenticated cell strain since 1974, and the rest of the presumed C. mellificae sequences obtained in our study or published. This means that the latter group corresponds to a highly differentiated taxon that should be renamed accordingly. CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrate that the drivers of colony collapse may differ between geographic regions with different environmental conditions, or with different beekeeping and agricultural practices. The role of other pathogens in colony collapse has to bee studied in future, especially trypanosomatids and neogregarines. Beside their pathological effect on honey bees, classification and taxonomy of these protozoan parasites should also be clarified.

Evidence for the persistence of an active endogenous retrovirus (ERVE) in humans.

Transposable elements (TEs) account for nearly half (44 %) of the human genome. However, their overall activity has been steadily declining over the past 35-50 million years, so that <0.05 % of TEs are presumably still "alive" (potentially transposable) in human populations. All the active elements are retrotransposons, either autonomous (LINE-1 and possibly the endogenous retrovirus ERVK), or non-autonomous (Alu and SVA, whose transposition is dependent on the LINE-1 enzymatic machinery). Here we show that a lineage of the endogenous retrovirus ERVE was recently engaged in ectopic recombination events and may have at least one potentially fully functional representative, initially reported as a novel retrovirus isolated from blood cells of a Chinese patient with chronic myeloid leukemia, which bears signals of positive selection on its envelope region. Altogether, there is strong evidence that ERVE should be included in the short list of potentially active TEs, and we give clues on how to identify human specific insertions of this element that are likely to be segregating in some of our populations.

Virulence and polar tube protein genetic diversity of Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia) field isolates from Northern and Southern Europe in honeybees (Apis mellifera iberiensis).

Infection of honeybees by the microsporidian Nosema ceranae is considered to be one of the factors underlying the increased colony losses and decreased honey production seen in recent years. However, these effects appear to differ in function of the climatic zone, the distinct beekeeping practices and the honeybee species employed. Here, we compared the response of Apis mellifera iberiensis worker bees to experimental infection with field isolates of N. ceranae from an Oceanic climate zone in Northern Europe (Netherlands) and from a Mediterranean region of Southern Europe (Spain). We found a notable but non-significant trend (P = 0.097) towards higher honeybee survival for bees infected with N. ceranae from the Netherlands, although no differences were found between the two isolates in terms of anatomopathological lesions in infected ventricular cells or the morphology of the mature and immature stages of the parasite. In addition, the population genetic survey of the N. ceranae PTP3 locus revealed high levels of genetic diversity within each isolate, evidence for meiotic recombination, and no signs of differentiation between the Dutch and Spanish populations. A cross-infection study is needed to further explore the differences in virulence observed between the two N. ceranae populations in field conditions.