"I Think Peer Support Helps to Demystify People Who Have Mental Health Issues and Helps to Remove That Stigma": Exploring the Defining Characteristics and Related Challenges of Youth Peer Support Through Participatory Research.

Despite the emerging body of literature on the benefits of youth peer support, there is also evidence that peer support can have unintended negative impacts on peers themselves. It is important to explore what aspects of the peer role contribute to these difficulties in order to mitigate risks. This paper uses a participatory approach to examine the unique attributes of youth peer practice and the related challenges. We conducted semi-structured interviews and focus groups with both peer and non-peer staff from a community-based youth mental health program that provides peer support services (N = 29). Thematic analyses were completed using QSR NVivo. Analyses capture the defining features and related challenges of the peer support role (self-disclosure, boundaries, role confusion and dynamic recovery), and risk factors that affect peers (stigma, exposure to harm and burnout). This paper contributes to the literature on peer support as well as youth participatory evaluation. The findings will be useful to support the development of improved organizational contexts for peer practice and more effective peer support programming.

An assessment of appraisals of dating relationship conflicts and perceptions of appropriate coping strategies with psychologically abusive interactions.

Introduction: Stemming from a stress appraisal and coping perspective, the present investigation developed a methodology for assessing how individuals appraise abusive dating relationship conflicts (Study 1) and the implications of such appraisals for informing coping responses to abusive interactions (Study 2). Methods: Participants ranging in age from 17 to 29 years (Study 1: 102 males, 339 females; Study 2: 88 males, 362 females) completed a survey in which they were presented with a series of 10 scenarios that conveyed relationship conflict cues that were ostensibly aligned with various forms of psychological abuse. Results: Factor analyses indicated that blatant actions conducted in privacy were differentiated from more ambiguous public forms of psychological abuse, in that the latter were appraised by both males and females as more abusive. Females were further likely to appraise blatant conflicts as more threatening but at the same time more resolvable. Participants who had encountered abuse in their own intimate relationships were especially likely to appraise conflicts as abusive, threatening and uncontrollable. Such appraisals were associated with greater endorsement of avoidant coping strategies in response to an abusive encounter, irrespective of personal relationship experiences. Discussion: It is suggested that how individuals appraise relationship conflicts may be key to their ability to cope effectively with such encounters or to provide appropriate support to those experiencing psychologically abusive relationships.

"You can create a little bit more closure in your own story when someone really connects with it": exploring how involvement in youth peer support work can promote peer development.

BACKGROUND: Peer support relates to the provision of social/emotional support that is delivered by individuals with lived experience of a key characteristic that is shared with clients. Although the main objective of peer support is to enhance client outcomes, through their involvement, peers derive a secondary benefit to their own personal development. This study applied a hybrid participatory-realist approach to identify what works, for whom, why and in what circumstances within the LOFT Transitional Age Youth (TAY) peer services. This paper presents findings related to the processes and possible benefits of being involved in peer work for the peer supporters themselves. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were completed with peer and non-peer staff from the TAY program. A qualitative analysis applied a retroductive approach that involved both inductive and deductive processes to identify relevant themes. RESULTS: Four program theories and one over-arching context were identified through the analyses. Program theories were related to: (1) enhancing self-efficacy and self-determination through peer involvement in program design, (2) increasing peer resiliency and self-care through effective supervision, (3) developing professional skills and opportunities for career advancement through peer practice and (4) overcoming stigma through the recognition of the value of peer lived experience. CONCLUSIONS: Peer practice holds significant potential for the enhancement of the mental health system as well as to increase our understanding of stigma. The findings from this study offer critical new insights into the dynamics of how professional peer practice can support the personal development of youth peers and how programming can be intentionally designed to enhance these benefits.

A scoping review of frameworks utilized in the design and evaluation of courses in health professional programs to address the role of historical and ongoing colonialism in the health outcomes of Indigenous Peoples.

Indigenous education curriculum has been implemented in health professional programs as a potential solution to addressing commonly held false beliefs, as well as negative social attitudes and behaviours. As such it is important to map and analyze the current literature on educational initiatives that teach about historical and ongoing colonialism as a determinant of health to identify commonly used theoretical frameworks and outcomes assessed, as well as the intended and unintended short- and long-term outcomes on health professional learner's beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. This scoping review follows the framework by (Peters et al., JBI Evidence Synthesis 18:2119-2126, 2020). Six databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsychInfo, Sociological Abstracts, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses) were searched with grey literature included through hand-searching of Indigenous journals and citation searching for papers published up until 2022 based on an established search criterion. Two reviewers independently screened articles. In total, 2731 records were identified and screened; full text was assessed for 72 articles; 14 articles were identified as meeting all the inclusion criteria and included in the final review. Commonly- used theoretical frameworks were transformative learning and cultural safety, with a variety of evaluation tools used and post-intervention outcomes measured across the studies (e.g., knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, behaviour and general learner feedback). Indigenous education interventions require longitudinal evaluation studies to address shortcomings in the design and evaluation of outcomes associated with teaching about colonialism as a structural determinant of health. It is critical that we identify and monitor the intended and unintended consequences of such curriculum as we look to develop solutions to changing health professional learners' false beliefs and attitudes, in hopes to inform their future care practices.

Beliefs around the causes of inequities and intergroup attitudes among health professional students before and after a course related to Indigenous Peoples and colonialism.

BACKGROUND: Addressing the Truth and Reconciliation Calls to Action on including anti-racism and cultural competency education is acknowledged within many health professional programs. However, little is known about the effects of a course related to Indigenous Peoples and colonialism on learners' beliefs about the causes of inequities and intergroup attitudes. METHODS: A total of 335 learners across three course cohorts (in 2019, 2020, 2022) of health professional programs (e.g., Dentistry/Dental Hygiene, Medicine, Nursing, and Pharmacy) at a Canadian university completed a survey prior to and 3 months following an educational intervention. The survey assessed gender, age, cultural identity, political ideology, and health professional program along with learners' causal beliefs, blaming attitudes, support for social action and perceived professional responsibility to address inequities. Pre-post changes were assessed using mixed measures (Cohort x Time of measurement) analyses of variance, and demographic predictors of change were determined using multiple regression analyses. Pearson correlations were conducted to assess the relationship between the main outcome variables. RESULTS: Only one cohort of learners reported change following the intervention, indicating greater awareness of the effects of historical aspects of colonialism on Indigenous Peoples inequities, but unexpectedly, expressed stronger blaming attitudes and less support for government social action and policy at the end of the course. When controlling for demographic variables, the strongest predictors of blaming attitudes towards Indigenous Peoples and lower support for government action were gender and health professional program. There was a negative correlation between historical factors and blaming attitudes suggesting that learners who were less willing to recognize the role of historical factors on health inequities were more likely to express blaming attitudes. Further, stronger support for government action or policies to address such inequities was associated with greater recognition of the causal effects of historical factors, and learners were less likely to express blaming attitudes. CONCLUSION: The findings with respect to blaming attitudes and lower support for government social action and policies suggested that educational interventions can have unexpected negative effects. As such, implementation of content to address the Truth and Reconciliation Commissions Calls to Action should be accompanied by rigorous research and evaluation that explore how attitudes are transformed across the health professional education journey to monitor intended and unintended effects.

Implications of time and space factors related with youth substance use prevention: a conceptual review and case study of the Icelandic Prevention Model being implemented in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

PURPOSE: This research examines the implementation of the Icelandic Prevention Model (IPM) in Canada to identify opportunities revealed by the COVID-19 pandemic to re-design our social eco-system to promote wellbeing. This paper has two objectives: 1) to provide a conceptual review of research that applies the bioecological model to youth substance use prevention with a focus on the concepts of time and physical space use and 2) to describe a case study that examines the implementation of the IPM in Canada within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHOD: Study data were collected through semi-structured qualitative interviews with key stakeholders involved in implementing the IPM. RESULTS: Findings are organized within three over-arching themes derived from a thematic analysis: 1) Issues that influence time and space use patterns and youth substance use, 2) Family and community cohesion and influences on developmental context and time use and 3) Opportunities presented by the pandemic that can promote youth wellbeing. CONCLUSION: We apply the findings to research on the IPM as well as the pandemic to examine opportunities that may support primary prevention and overall youth wellbeing. We use the concepts of time and space as a foundation to discuss implications for policy and practice going forward.

Protective effects of physical activity on mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been linked with increased reports of depression, anxiety, and stress. Stay-at-home directives during the pandemic-imposed lifestyle changes, including eating and sedentary behaviors that can further undermine mental health outcomes. Physical activity is a vital component for metabolic health, as well as for mental health by serving as an active coping strategy to manage stress and promote resilience. Global reports of increased sedentary leisure behaviors have been associated with feelings of depression and anxiety, but it unclear whether the relationship between physical activity and depression or anxiety persists over time. In this longitudinal study, we investigated (i) whether physical activity at the onset of the pandemic was related to feelings of depression or anxiety over time and (ii) whether this relationship was mediated by stress appraisals during the pandemic. We surveyed 319 adults living in Canada or the United States to assess physical activity, stress appraisals, and mental health outcomes at two time points over a 6-month period. We found a reduction in leisure-time physical activity that was linked to subsequent feelings of depression. Furthermore, individuals with lower levels of physical activity were more likely to appraise their COVID-19 situation to be uncontrollable at pandemic onset and as the pandemic continued. Stress appraisals of threat and uncontrollability were also positively related to feelings of depression. Modelling these three factors together showed that appraising a situation as uncontrollable mediated the relationship between initial physical activity and subsequent depressive feelings. Although correlational, these data highlight the protective role of leisure-time physical activity against worsened mental health outcomes during periods of prolonged stress.

"You can kind of just feel the power behind what someone's saying": a participatory-realist evaluation of peer support for young people coping with complex mental health and substance use challenges.

BACKGROUND: Youth peer support, as a practice that aligns youth engagement and participatory approaches, has become increasingly popular in the context of youth mental health services. However, there is a need for more evidence that describes how and why youth peer support practice might be effective. This study was designed to examine a peer support service for youth experiencing complex challenges with mental health, physical health and/or substance use to better understand key features and underlying mechanisms that lead to improved client outcomes. METHODS: We applied a hybrid realist-participatory approach to explore key issues and underlying theoretical assumptions within a youth peer support approach for young people (age 14-26) experiencing complex mental health and substance use challenges. We used semi-structured interviews and focus groups with staff, including peers (N = 8), clinical service providers and administrative staff (N = 15), to develop the theories and a client survey to validate them. Our qualitative thematic analysis applied a retroductive approach that involved both inductive and deductive processes. For the client survey (N = 77), we calculated descriptive statistics to examine participant profiles and usage patterns. Pearson correlations were examined to determine relationships among concepts outlined in the program theories, including context, mechanism and outcome variables. RESULTS: Our analyses resulted in one over-arching context, one over-arching outcome and four program theories. Program theories were focused on mechanisms related to 1) positive identity development through identification with peers, 2) enhanced social connections, 3) observational learning and 4) enhanced autonomy and empowerment. CONCLUSIONS: This study serves as a unique example of a participatory-realist hybrid approach. Findings highlight possible key components of youth peer practice and shed light on the functional mechanisms that underlie successful peer practice. These key components can be examined in other settings to develop more comprehensive theories of change with respect to youth peer support and can eventually be used to develop guidelines and standards to strengthen practice. This research contributes to an expanding body of literature on youth peer support in mental health and connects peer practice with several social theories. This research begins to lay a foundation for enhanced youth peer support program design and improved outcomes for young people experiencing complex mental health and substance use challenges.

Early life adverse experiences and loneliness among young adults: The mediating role of social processes.

Loneliness has been described as endemic among young people. Such feelings of social isolation 'even in a crowd' are likely linked to adverse early life experiences that serve to diminish perceptions of social support and intensify negative social interactions. It was suggested in the present series of survey studies that childhood abuse, which compromises a child's sense of safety in relationships, may affect social processes that contribute to loneliness in young adulthood. Study 1 assessed different adverse childhood and adult experiences in relation to loneliness among young adults (N = 171). Linear regression analyses indicated that childhood abuse was uniquely associated with greater loneliness, and this relationship was partially mediated by the perceived availability of social support. Study 2 (N = 289) assessed different forms of childhood abuse and demonstrated that early life emotional abuse was a unique predictor of loneliness, and this relationship was fully mediated by lower perceived support or value in social connections (social connectedness) and more frequent unsupportive interactions with friends. Study 3 evaluated the implications of the age of occurrence of abuse (N = 566). Both emotional and sexual abuse predicted young adult loneliness regardless of age; abuse that was recalled to have occurred at very early ages (0-5 years) was not predictive of loneliness over and above consideration of events that happened in older childhood. These relationships were at least partially mediated by perceived social support, social connectedness, and in the case of emotional abuse, unsupportive interactions with friends. Our results add to mounting evidence pointing to the prevalence of loneliness among young adults and the links to adverse early life experiences that may serve to shape appraisals of safety, value, and personal worth in social relationships.

Canada's Colonial Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Review of the Psychosocial and Neurobiological Processes Linking Trauma and Intergenerational Outcomes.

The policies and actions that were enacted to colonize Indigenous Peoples in Canada have been described as constituting cultural genocide. When one considers the long-term consequences from the perspective of the social and environmental determinants of health framework, the impacts of such policies on the physical and mental health of Indigenous Peoples go well beyond cultural loss. This paper addresses the impacts of key historical and current Canadian federal policies in relation to the health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples. Far from constituting a mere lesson in history, the connections between colonialist policies and actions on present-day outcomes are evaluated in terms of transgenerational and intergenerational transmission processes, including psychosocial, developmental, environmental, and neurobiological mechanisms and trauma responses. In addition, while colonialist policies have created adverse living conditions for Indigenous Peoples, resilience and the perseverance of many aspects of culture may be maintained through intergenerational processes.

Non-Indigenous Canadians' and Americans' moral expectations of Indigenous peoples in light of the negative impacts of the Indian Residential Schools.

The historical trauma associated with the Indian Residential School (IRS) system was recently brought to the awareness of the Canadian public. Two studies investigated how the salience of this collective victimization impacted non-Indigenous Canadians' expectations that Indigenous peoples ought to derive psychological benefits (e.g., learned to appreciate life) and be morally obligated to help others. Study 1 found that modern racism was related to perceptions that Indigenous peoples psychologically benefitted from the IRS experience, which in turn, predicted greater expectations of moral obligation. Study 2 replicated the relations among racism, benefit finding, and moral obligation among non-Indigenous Canadians (historical perpetrators of the harm done) and Americans (third-party observers). Americans were uniquely responsive to a portrayal of Indigenous peoples in Canada as strong versus vulnerable. Factors that distance observers from the victim (such as racism or third-party status) appear to influence perceptions of finding benefit in victimization experiences and expectations of moral obligation.

Tweeting about sexism motivates further activism: A social identity perspective.

Women, more so than men, are using social media activism to respond to sexism. However, when they do, they are also faced with gendered criticisms 'hashtag feminism' that may instead serve to silence them. Based on social identity theory, this research examined how women's social media activism, in response to sexism, may be a first step towards further activism. Two studies used a simulated Twitter paradigm to expose women to sexism and randomly assign them to either tweet in response, or to a no-tweet control condition. Both studies found support for a serial mediation model such that tweeting out after sexism strengthened social identity, which in turn increased collective action intentions, and in turn, behavioural collective actions. Study 2 further showed that validation from others increases the indirect effect of tweeting on behavioural collective action through collective action intentions, but group efficacy did not moderate any indirect effects. It was concluded that social media activism in response to sexism promotes an enactment of women's social identity, thereby mobilizing them to further action.

Piece of Cake: Coping with COVID-19.

To limit the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), many individuals were instructed to stay at home, and teleworking became commonplace. Meanwhile, many others were laid off or worked reduced hours, and some front line workers were required to work longer hours. Concurrently, a surge in reports of "pandemic baking" suggested a cascade effect on eating behaviors, which may be an inadvertent strategy to cope with stress. We conducted an online survey of people living in Canada or the United States (N = 680) to assess how employment change may have been experienced as stressful and linked to a shift in food choices. Regression models suggested that reduced hours and being laid off were associated with greater stress appraisals, avoidant- and emotion-focused coping responses, and negative affect. In turn, negative affect was associated with eating to cope and unhealthy snack choices, like salty or sweet treats. Our study emphasizes that under stressful conditions, such as those experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, some coping strategies may contribute to the greater vulnerability to downstream effects, particularly those relating to eating choices and nutritional balances.

Resilience: Safety in the Aftermath of Traumatic Stressor Experiences.

The relationship between adverse experiences and the emergence of pathology has often focused on characteristics of the stressor or of the individual (stressor appraisals, coping strategies). These features are thought to influence multiple biological processes that favor the development of mental and physical illnesses. Less often has attention focused on the aftermath of traumatic experiences, and the importance of safety and reassurance that is necessary for longer-term well-being. In some cases (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder) this may be reflected by a failure of fear extinction, whereas in other instances (e.g., historical trauma), the uncertainty about the future might foster continued anxiety. In essence, the question becomes one of how individuals attain feelings of safety when it is fully understood that the world is not necessarily a safe place, uncertainties abound, and feelings of agency are often illusory. We consider how individuals acquire resilience in the aftermath of traumatic and chronic stressors. In this respect, we review characteristics of stressors that may trigger particular biological and behavioral coping responses, as well as factors that undermine their efficacy. To this end, we explore stressor dynamics and social processes that foster resilience in response to specific traumatic, chronic, and uncontrollable stressor contexts (intimate partner abuse; refugee migration; collective historical trauma). We point to resilience factors that may comprise neurobiological changes, such as those related to various stressor-provoked hormones, neurotrophins, inflammatory immune, microbial, and epigenetic processes. These behavioral and biological stress responses may influence, and be influenced by, feelings of safety that come about through relationships with others, spiritual and place-based connections.

Intergenerational communication regarding Indian Residential Schools: Implications for cultural identity, perceived discrimination, and depressive symptoms.

Two studies assessed the nature of parental communication about the trauma of Indian Residential Schools (IRSs) in relation to the psychological distress of their adult offspring, and whether the link between parental communication and distress was mediated by offsprings' greater awareness of collective discrimination or sense of pride in cultural identity. In Study 1, an online survey of Indigenous participants from across Canada (N = 498) demonstrated a curvilinear relation between the extent to which parents talked about their negative IRS experiences and the severity of depressive symptoms among offspring, among whom symptoms were particularly pronounced with more frequent communication. This relation was mediated by greater perceived discrimination. A similar, but inverse, association was found when parental communications conveyed positive construals of their IRS experiences. Study 2 (N = 134) further demonstrated an association between direct communications from IRS survivors and offspring wellbeing in that, either the absence of, or especially frequent communications were related to more severe depressive symptoms among offspring. However, hearing about parental IRS experiences from someone other than the parent was not related to offsprings' depressive symptoms. Qualitative analyses indicated that direct communications from parents tended to provide excessive detail, whereas parental silence was associated with speculation and feelings of isolation or resentment among offspring of IRS survivors. Taken together, the results suggest that either insufficient or excessive parental communication about trauma might undermine offspring wellbeing, whereas moderate levels of communication that provide positive meaning and promote cultural pride or diminish perceptions of personal discrimination could be beneficial.

Social support and unsupportive interactions in relation to depressive symptoms: Implication of gender and the BDNF polymorphism.

Reduced levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), through its role in neurogenesis and neuroplasticity, may be involved in the evolution and maintenance of depression. Depression has also been tied to fewer social relationships, which can vary by gender. Thus, we assessed whether the functional single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on the BDNF gene, Val66Met, moderated the relationship between depressive symptoms and perceived social support and unsupportive relationships, and whether these associations differed by gender. Among 945 students, (n = 667 females; n= 278 males), depressive scores were inversely related to social support, and positively related with unsupportive relations. Females reported greater social support and depressive scores compared to males. A3-way interaction was found between unsupportive relations, the Val66Met SNP, and gender, such that irrespective of genotype, females displayed astrong relationship between unsupport and depressive scores. Male Met carriers displayed this relationship, but this was less apparent among males with the Val/Val genotype. The Val66Met SNP did not moderate the link between support and depressive scores. This BDNF SNP may serve to moderate the links between psychosocial factors and depressive symptoms, but such links are nuanced, being gender-dependent and varying with the nature of the social interactions experienced.

Observer perceptions of the justifiability of the actions of nations in conflict: The relative importance of conveying national vulnerability versus strength.

Because the underdog in a conflict typically gains the support of observers, nations will often adopt a narrative that persuades both their domestic following and international allies that they are the true victim in the conflict. Three survey studies were conducted to assess the perceptions of citizens of a third-party observer nation (Canada) in relation to two nations in conflict that differ in their historical persecution, namely the U.S. and Israel. Perceptions of the vulnerability of their safety and survival, and their strength to protect themselves against their opponents were hypothesized to mediate differences in the perceived justification for each nation's conflict actions. Study 1 (N = 91) supported this mediational model, with the U.S. seen as less vulnerable and more powerful than Israel, and perceptions of vulnerability accounting for differences in the justifiability of their respective conflict actions. Study 2 (N = 315) further demonstrated a moderating effect of Canadians' shared identity with the nations in conflict; only at lower levels of a shared identity was Israel perceived to be more vulnerable and the mediated relation with the perceived justifiability of its conflict actions retained. Study 3 was conducted 10 years later (2018), administering measures to an independent sample of Canadian participants (N = 300). Canadians were found to be significantly less likely to share a common identity with Americans than previously; once again, the mediating role of the perceived vulnerability of the nations in conflict and the justifiability of their actions was conditional on shared identification. The findings contribute to understanding influences on the credibility of victim claims by nations in conflict, as well as implications for how their actions are construed by citizens of a third-party observer nation.

Understanding the Relation Between Early-Life Adversity and Depression Symptoms: The Moderating Role of Sex and an Interleukin-1ß Gene Variant.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), are thought to play a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of depression within a subset of individuals. However, the involvement of IL-1ß has not been as consistently linked to depression, possibly owing to difficulties in detecting this cytokine in blood samples or that changes in circulating levels might only be apparent in a subgroup of patients who have experienced early-life adversity. From this perspective, the association between early-life adversity and depressive illness might depend on genetic variants regulating IL-1ß activity. Considering the inflammatory-depression link, and that women are twice as likely to experience depression compared to men, the current study (N = 475 university students) examined the moderating role of three independent cytokine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; IL-1ß rs16944, IL-6 rs1800795 SNP, TNF-α rs1800629) in the relationship between early-life adversity and depressive symptoms, and whether these relations differed between males and females. The relation between childhood adversity and depressive symptoms was moderated by the IL-1ß SNP, and further varied according to sex. Specifically, among females, higher childhood maltreatment was accompanied by elevated depressive symptoms irrespective of the IL-1ß SNP, but among males, this relationship was particularly pronounced for those carrying the GG genotype of the IL-1ß SNP. These findings suggest that, in the context of early life adversity, genetic variations of IL-1ß functioning are related to depressive symptomatology and this may vary among males and females. The present study also, more broadly, highlights the importance of considering the confluence of experiential factors (e.g., early life adversity) and personal characteristics (e.g., sex and genetics) in understanding depressive disorders, an approach increasingly recognized in developing personalized treatment approaches to this illness.

Traumatic Experiences, Perceived Discrimination, and Psychological Distress Among Members of Various Socially Marginalized Groups.

Perceived discrimination has consistently been shown to be associated with diminished mental health, but the psychological processes underlying this link are less well understood. The present series of four studies assessed the role of a history traumatic events in generating a proliferation of discrimination stressors and threat appraisals, which in turn predict psychological distress (depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms) (mediation model), or whether prior traumatic events sensitize group members, such that when they encounter discrimination, the link to stress-related symptoms is heightened (moderation model). Each of the studies assessed a different marginalized group in Canada, including Indigenous peoples, Blacks, Jews, and a diverse sample of women. Participants completed measures assessing history of traumatic events, perceived explicit and ambiguous discrimination, discrimination threat appraisals, and symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. The four populations varied in their experiences, with Indigenous peoples encountering the highest levels of trauma, discrimination, and psychological distress symptoms. A mediated model was evident among Indigenous peoples and women, possibly reflecting the role of systemic processes that engender discrimination when traumatic events are experienced. There was evidence for a moderating role of a history of traumatic events on the relations between discrimination and depressive symptoms among Jewish and Black participants. Although the hypothesized synergistic effects of traumatic experiences were noted when assessing the relation between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among Jews, the presence of trauma blunted these relations among Blacks. The results suggest that trauma-informed approaches to addressing stress-related processes and psychological outcomes need to consider the unique social context of members of various socially marginalized groups.

Acute stressor effects on cognitive flexibility: mediating role of stressor appraisals and cortisol.

Acute stressor experiences may influence cognition, possibly through actions of cognitive flexibility, which comprises the ability to modify cognitive and behavioral strategies in response to changing environmental demands. In the present investigation, we examined the effects of an acute psychosocial stressor (the Trier Social Stress Test) on a specific form of cognitive flexibility, namely that of set-shifting, which was assessed by the Berg's Card Sorting Task (BCST). Among undergraduate students, the stressor promoted better performance on the BSCT relative to that evident among nonstressed individuals, including a reduction of perseverative (an index of enhanced set-shifting) and non-perseverative errors. They also required fewer trials to learn the first sorting category, reflecting augmented acquisition of an attentional set, but did not differ in the ability to maintain a set. Moreover, increased cortisol levels specifically mediated the enhancing effects of the acute stressor on set-shifting, but not the ability to acquire and maintain an attentional set. However, this enhancing effect was minimized among individuals who appraised the stressor as being uncontrollable. These data indicate that an acute, social-evaluative stressor can facilitate certain forms of cognitive flexibility, such as set-shifting. The present investigation also highlights the value of focusing on psychological and physiological mediators in determining the impact of stressful experiences on cognitive functioning. Lay summary A brief social stressor (public speaking) can have an enhancing effect on mental flexibility, and this seems to be related to the stress hormone, cortisol. This cognitive enhancing effect, however, might be minimized if a stressful situation is perceived as beyond a person's control.