Very-long-chain fatty acids are crucial to neuronal polarity by providing sphingolipids to lipid rafts.

Fatty acids have long been considered essential to brain development; however, the involvement of their synthesis in nervous system formation is unclear. We generate mice with knockout of GPSN2, an enzyme for synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) and investigate the effects. Both GPSN2-/- and GPSN2+/- mice show abnormal neuronal networks as a result of impaired neuronal polarity determination. Lipidomics of GPSN2-/- embryos reveal that ceramide synthesis is specifically inhibited depending on FA length; namely, VLCFA-containing ceramide is reduced. We demonstrate that lipid rafts are highly enriched in growth cones and that GPSN2+/- neurons lose gangliosides in their membranes. Application of C24:0 ceramide, but not C16:0 ceramide or C24:0 phosphatidylcholine, to GPSN2+/- neurons rescues both neuronal polarity determination and lipid-raft density in the growth cone. Taken together, our results indicate that VLCFA synthesis contributes to physiological neuronal development in brain network formation, in particular neuronal polarity determination through the formation of lipid rafts.

Protocol for highly selective transgene expression through the flip-excision switch system by using a unilateral spacer sequence in rodents.

We present a protocol to induce Cre-dependent transgene expression in specific cell types in the rat brain, suppressing a leak expression in off-target cells, by using a flip-excision switch system with a unilateral spacer sequence. We describe steps for construction of transfer plasmids, preparation of adeno-associated viral vectors, intracranial injection, and detection of transgene expression. Our protocol provides a useful strategy for a better understanding of the structure and function of specific cell types in the complex neural circuit. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Matsushita et al.1.

Reward expectation enhances action-related activity of nigral dopaminergic and two striatal output pathways.

Neurons comprising nigrostriatal system play important roles in action selection. However, it remains unclear how this system integrates recent outcome information with current action (movement) and outcome (reward or no reward) information to achieve appropriate subsequent action. We examined how neuronal activity of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and dorsal striatum reflects the level of reward expectation from recent outcomes in rats performing a reward-based choice task. Movement-related activity of direct and indirect pathway striatal projection neurons (dSPNs and iSPNs, respectively) were enhanced by reward expectation, similarly to the SNc dopaminergic neurons, in both medial and lateral nigrostriatal projections. Given the classical basal ganglia model wherein dopamine stimulates dSPNs and suppresses iSPNs through distinct dopamine receptors, dopamine might not be the primary driver of iSPN activity increasing following higher reward expectation. In contrast, outcome-related activity was affected by reward expectation in line with the classical model and reinforcement learning theory, suggesting purposive effects of reward expectation.

Highly selective transgene expression through the flip-excision switch system by using a unilateral spacer sequence.

The flip-excision switch (FLEX) system with an adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector allows expression of transgenes in specific cell populations having Cre recombinase. A significant issue with this system is non-specific expression of transgenes in tissues after vector injection. We show here that Cre-independent recombination events in the AAV genome carrying the FLEX sequence occur mainly during the production of viral vectors in packaging cells, which results in transgene expression in off-target populations. Introduction of a relatively longer nucleotide sequence between two recognition sites at the unilateral side of the transgene cassette, termed a unilateral spacer sequence (USS), is useful to suppress the recombination in the viral genome, leading to the protection of non-specific transgene expression with enhanced gene expression selectivity. Our FLEX/USS system offers a powerful strategy for highly specific Cre-dependent transgene expression, aiming at various applications for structural and functional analyses of target cell populations.

Catecholaminergic cell type-specific expression of Cre recombinase in knock-in transgenic rats generated by the Combi-CRISPR technology.

BACKGROUND: Cell groups containing catecholamines provide a useful model to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the morphogenesis, physiology, and pathology of the central nervous system. For this purpose, it is necessary to establish a system to induce catecholaminergic group-specific expression of Cre recombinase. Recently, we introduced a gene cassette encoding 2A peptide fused to Cre recombinase into the site between the C-terminus and translational termination codons of the rat tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) open reading frame by the Combi-CRISPR technology, which is a genomic editing method to enable an efficient knock-in (KI) of long DNA sequence into a target site. However, the expression patterns of the transgene and its function as well as the effect of the mutation on the biochemical and behavioral phenotypes in the KI strains have not been characterized yet. NEW METHOD: We aimed to evaluate the usefulness of TH-Cre KI rats as an experimental model for investigating the structure and function of catecholaminergic neurons in the brain. RESULTS: We detected cell type-specific expression of Cre recombinase and site-specific recombination activity in the representative catecholaminergic groups in the TH-Cre KI rat strains. In addition, we measured TH protein levels and catecholamine accumulation in the brain regions, as well as motor, reward-related, and anxiety-like behaviors, indicating that catecholamine metabolism and general behavior are apparently normal in these KI rats. CONCLUSIONS: TH-Cre KI rat strains produced by the Combi-CRISPR system offer a beneficial model to study the molecular and cellular mechanics for the morphogenesis, physiology, and pathology of catecholamine-containing neurons in the brain.

Right ventricular overloading is attenuated in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension model rats with a disrupted Gpr143 gene, the gene that encodes the 3,4-l-dihydroxyphenyalanine (l-DOPA) receptor.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a severe and progressive disease that causes elevated right ventricular systolic pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy and ultimately right heart failure. However, the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms are poorly understood. We previously showed that 3,4-l-dihydroxylphenyalanine (DOPA) sensitizes vasomotor response to sympathetic tone via coupling between the adrenergic receptor alpha1 (ADRA1) and a G protein-coupled receptor 143 (GPR143), a DOPA receptor. We investigated whether DOPA similarly enhances ADRA1-mediated contraction in pulmonary arteries isolated from rats, and whether GPR143 is involved in the PH pathogenesis. Pretreating the isolated pulmonary arteries with DOPA 1 µM enhanced vasoconstriction in response to phenylephrine, an ADRA1 agonist, but not to U-46619, a thromboxane A2 agonist or endothelin-1. We generated Gpr143 gene-deficient (Gpr143-/y) rats, and confirmed that DOPA did not augment phenylephrine-induced contractile response in Gpr143-/y rat pulmonary arteries. We utilized a rat model of monocrotaline (MCT)-induced PH. In the MCT model, the right ventricular systolic pressure was attenuated in the Gpr143-/y rats than in WT rats. Phenylephrine-induced cell migration and proliferation were also suppressed in Gpr143-/y pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells than in WT cells. Our result suggests that GPR143 is involved in the PH pathogenesis in the rat models of PH.

Combi-CRISPR: combination of NHEJ and HDR provides efficient and precise plasmid-based knock-ins in mice and rats.

CRISPR-Cas9 are widely used for gene targeting in mice and rats. The non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair pathway, which is dominant in zygotes, efficiently induces insertion or deletion (indel) mutations as gene knockouts at targeted sites, whereas gene knock-ins (KIs) via homology-directed repair (HDR) are difficult to generate. In this study, we used a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) donor template with Cas9 and two single guide RNAs, one designed to cut the targeted genome sequences and the other to cut both the flanked genomic region and one homology arm of the dsDNA plasmid, which resulted in 20-33% KI efficiency among G0 pups. G0 KI mice carried NHEJ-dependent indel mutations at one targeting site that was designed at the intron region, and HDR-dependent precise KIs of the various donor cassettes spanning from 1 to 5 kbp, such as EGFP, mCherry, Cre, and genes of interest, at the other exon site. These findings indicate that this combinatorial method of NHEJ and HDR mediated by the CRISPR-Cas9 system facilitates the efficient and precise KIs of plasmid DNA cassettes in mice and rats.

Characterization of doxycycline-dependent inducible Simian Virus 40 large T antigen immortalized human conjunctival epithelial cell line.

PURPOSE: To present the properties of a newly developed immortalized human conjunctival epithelial cell (iHCjEC) line. METHODS: iHCjECs were developed to induce Simian Virus 40 large T-antigen (SV40LT) by incorporating lentivirus in a tetracycline (Tet)-regulated gene-expression system into primary cultures of human conjunctival epithelial cells. The population doubling time and morphology of the iHCjECs were analyzed. The expressions of CK13, CK19, CK12, and MUC1, MUC4, MUC16, and MUC5AC were determined by real time PCR and immunohistochemically under different culture conditions. The organotypic culture model in which iHCjECs were cultured on rabbit conjunctival fibroblast-embedded collagen gel was used to characterize the iHCjECs. RESULTS: The iHCjECs cultured with doxycycline (Dox) continued to proliferate for at least 20 passages and had a cobblestone-like appearance. The expressions of CK13 and CK19 but not CK12 were detected in the iHCjECs, and the expression of CK13 increased in culture media lacking Dox (Dox-). The expressions of MUC1, MUC4, MUC16, and MUC5AC were detected in iHCjECs, and a relatively strong immunostaining of MUC5AC was detected with Dox(-) added 5% FBS. Stratified iHCjECs were observed in organotypic culture at 5 days. CONCLUSION: The iHCjECs had high proliferation rates and abilities to control the differentiation potency to control the expression of SV40 LT-antigen with Tet-regulated gene-expression system. They are able to express the mucin gene repertoire of their native epithelia. The iHCjECs can be a useful experimental cell line to study conjunctival epithelial cell characteristics and for pathophysiological and toxicological studies.

Extracellular Signals Induce Glycoprotein M6a Clustering of Lipid Rafts and Associated Signaling Molecules.

Lipid raft domains, where sphingolipids and cholesterol are enriched, concentrate signaling molecules. To examine how signaling protein complexes are clustered in rafts, we focused on the functions of glycoprotein M6a (GPM6a), which is expressed at a high concentration in developing mouse neurons. Using imaging of lipid rafts, we found that GPM6a congregated in rafts in a GPM6a palmitoylation-dependent manner, thereby contributing to lipid raft clustering. In addition, we found that signaling proteins downstream of GPM6a, such as Rufy3, Rap2, and Tiam2/STEF, accumulated in lipid rafts in a GPM6a-dependent manner and were essential for laminin-dependent polarity during neurite formation in neuronal development. In utero RNAi targeting of GPM6a resulted in abnormally polarized neurons with multiple neurites. These results demonstrate that GPM6a induces the clustering of lipid rafts, which supports the raft aggregation of its associated downstream molecules for acceleration of neuronal polarity determination. Therefore, GPM6a acts as a signal transducer that responds to extracellular signals.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Lipid raft domains, where sphingolipids and cholesterol are enriched, concentrate signaling molecules. We focused on glycoprotein M6a (GPM6a), which is expressed at a high concentration in developing neurons. Using imaging of lipid rafts, we found that GPM6a congregated in rafts in a palmitoylation-dependent manner, thereby contributing to lipid raft clustering. In addition, we found that signaling proteins downstream of GPM6a accumulated in lipid rafts in a GPM6a-dependent manner and were essential for laminin-dependent polarity during neurite formation. In utero RNAi targeting of GPM6a resulted in abnormally polarized neurons with multiple neurites. These results demonstrate that GPM6a induces the clustering of lipid rafts, which supports the raft aggregation of its associated downstream molecules for acceleration of polarity determination. Therefore, GPM6a acts as a signal transducer that responds to extracellular signals.

Conformational plasticity of JRAB/MICAL-L2 provides "law and order" in collective cell migration.

In fundamental biological processes, cells often move in groups, a process termed collective cell migration. Collectively migrating cells are much better organized than a random assemblage of individual cells. Many molecules have been identified as factors involved in collective cell migration, and no one molecule is adequate to explain the whole picture. Here we show that JRAB/MICAL-L2, an effector protein of Rab13 GTPase, provides the "law and order" allowing myriad cells to behave as a single unit just by changing its conformation. First, we generated a structural model of JRAB/MICAL-L2 by a combination of bioinformatic and biochemical analyses and showed how JRAB/MICAL-L2 interacts with Rab13 and how its conformational change occurs. We combined cell biology, live imaging, computational biology, and biomechanics to show that impairment of conformational plasticity in JRAB/MICAL-L2 causes excessive rigidity and loss of directionality, leading to imbalance in cell group behavior. This multidisciplinary approach supports the concept that the conformational plasticity of a single molecule provides "law and order" in collective cell migration.

Rotation is the primary motion of paired human epidermal keratinocytes.

BACKGROUND: Collective motion of keratinocytes is involved in morphogenesis, homeostasis, and wound healing of the epidermis. Yet how the collective motion of keratinocytes emerges from the behavior of individual cells is still largely unknown. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to find the cellular behavior that links single and collective motion of keratinocytes. METHODS: We investigated the behavior of two-cell colonies of HaCaT keratinocytes by a combination of time-lapse imaging and image processing. RESULTS: The two-cell colonies of HaCaT cells were formed as a contacted pair of keratinocyte clones. Image analysis and cell culture experiments revealed that the rotational speed of two-cell colonies was positively associated with their proliferative capacity. α6 integrin was required for the rotational motion of two-cell keratinocyte colonies. We also confirmed that two-cell colonies of keratinocytes predominantly exhibited the rotational, but not translational, motion, two modes of motion in a contact pair of rotating objects. CONCLUSION: The rotational motion is the primary motion of two-cell keratinocyte colonies and its speed is positively associated with their proliferative capacity. This study suggests that the assembly of rotating keratinocytes generates the collective motion of proliferative keratinocytes during morphogenesis and wound healing of the epidermis.

Cell motion predicts human epidermal stemness.

Image-based identification of cultured stem cells and noninvasive evaluation of their proliferative capacity advance cell therapy and stem cell research. Here we demonstrate that human keratinocyte stem cells can be identified in situ by analyzing cell motion during their cultivation. Modeling experiments suggested that the clonal type of cultured human clonogenic keratinocytes can be efficiently determined by analysis of early cell movement. Image analysis experiments demonstrated that keratinocyte stem cells indeed display a unique rotational movement that can be identified as early as the two-cell stage colony. We also demonstrate that α6 integrin is required for both rotational and collective cell motion. Our experiments provide, for the first time, strong evidence that cell motion and epidermal stemness are linked. We conclude that early identification of human keratinocyte stem cells by image analysis of cell movement is a valid parameter for quality control of cultured keratinocytes for transplantation.

Arkadia enhances BMP signalling through ubiquitylation and degradation of Smad6.

Arkadia, a positive regulator of Smad-dependent signalling via the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) family, is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that induces ubiquitylation and proteasome-dependent degradation of TGF-ß suppressors such as Smad7, c-Ski and SnoN. In this study, we examined the effects of Arkadia on bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-induced osteoblast differentiation. Knockdown of Arkadia reduced mineralization and expression of osteoblast differentiation markers. Furthermore, we showed that Smad6, a BMP-specific inhibitory Smad, is a target of Arkadia: wild-type (WT) Arkadia, but not the C937A (CA) mutant lacking E3 ubiquitin-ligase activity, induced ubiquitylation and proteasome-dependent degradation of Smad6. Accordingly, protein levels of Smad6, Smad7 and c-Ski were elevated in MEFs from Arkadia KO mice. Finally, expression of Arkadia attenuated blockade of BMP signalling by Smad6 in a transcriptional reporter assay. These results demonstrate that Smad6 is a novel target of Arkadia, and that Arkadia positively regulates BMP signalling via degradation of Smad6, Smad7 and c-Ski/SnoN.

High-throughput synthesis of stable isotope-labeled transmembrane proteins for targeted transmembrane proteomics using a wheat germ cell-free protein synthesis system.

Using a wheat germ cell-free protein synthesis system, we developed a high-throughput method for the synthesis of stable isotope-labeled full-length transmembrane proteins as proteoliposomes to mimic the in vivo environment, and we successfully constructed an internal standard library for targeted transmembrane proteomics by using mass spectrometry.

Enhanced flexibility of place discrimination learning by targeting striatal cholinergic interneurons.

Behavioural flexibility is mediated through the neural circuitry linking the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Here we conduct selective elimination of striatal cholinergic interneurons in transgenic rats by immunotoxin-mediated cell targeting. Elimination of cholinergic interneurons from the dorsomedial striatum (DMS), but not from the dorsolateral striatum, results in enhanced reversal and extinction learning, sparing the acquisition of place discrimination. This enhancement is prevented by infusion of a non-selective muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist into the DMS either in the acquisition, reversal or extinction phase. In addition, gene-specific silencing of M4 muscarinic receptor by lentiviral expression of short hairpin RNA (shRNA) mimics the place reversal learning promoted by cholinergic elimination, whereas shRNA-mediated gene silencing of M1 muscarinic receptor shows the normal performance of reversal learning. Our data indicate that DMS cholinergic interneurons inhibit behavioural flexibility, mainly through the M4 muscarinic receptor, suggesting that this role is engaged to the stabilization of acquired reward contingency and the suppression of response switch to changed contingency.

Chondroitin sulphate N-acetylgalactosaminyl-transferase-1 inhibits recovery from neural injury.

Extracellular factors that inhibit axon growth and intrinsic factors that promote it affect neural regeneration. Therapies targeting any single gene have not yet simultaneously optimized both types of factors. Chondroitin sulphate (CS), a glycosaminoglycan, is the most abundant extracellular inhibitor of axon growth. Here we show that mice carrying a gene knockout for CS N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase-1 (T1), a key enzyme in CS biosynthesis, recover more completely from spinal cord injury than wild-type mice and even chondroitinase ABC-treated mice. Notably, synthesis of heparan sulphate (HS), a glycosaminoglycan promoting axonal growth, is also upregulated in TI knockout mice because HS-synthesis enzymes are induced in the mutant neurons. Moreover, chondroitinase ABC treatment never induces HS upregulation. Taken together, our results indicate that regulation of a single gene, T1, mediates excellent recovery from spinal cord injury by optimizing counteracting effectors of axon regeneration--an extracellular inhibitor of CS and intrinsic promoters, namely, HS-synthesis enzymes.

Junctional Rab13-binding protein (JRAB) regulates cell spreading via filamins.

We previously showed that Rab13 and its effector protein, junctional Rab13-binding protein (JRAB)/molecules interacting with CasL-like 2 (MICAL-L2), regulate junctional development by modulating cell adhesion molecule transport and actin cytoskeletal reorganization in epithelial cells. Here, we investigated how JRAB regulates reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton in NIH3T3 fibroblasts, in an attempt to obtain novel insights into the mechanism of JRAB action. To this end, we expressed mutant proteins that adopt a constitutively open or closed state and then examined effect on cellular morphology of the resulting actin cytoskeletal reorganization. Expression of the JRABΔCT mutant (constitutively 'closed' state) induced stress fibers, whereas expression of the JRABΔCC mutant (constitutively 'open' state) caused cell spreading with membrane ruffles. Next, we identified the proteins involved in JRAB-induced rearrangement of actin cytoskeleton leading to morphological changes. In NIH3T3 cells expressing HA-JRABΔCC, filamin, an actin cross-linking protein, coimmunoprecipitated with HA-JRABΔCC. Expression of ASB2 induced degradation of all three filamin isoforms and inhibited the JRABΔCC-induced cell spreading. Consistent with our previous results, actinin-1/-4 were also immunoprecipitated with HA-JRABΔCC. However, actinin-1/-4 have no effect on the cell spreading regulated by JRABΔCC. These data suggest that JRAB contributes to the rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton during cell spreading via filamins.

Doxycycline-dependent inducible and reversible RNA interference mediated by a single lentivirus vector.

RNA interference has been applied to the development of a method of silencing genes of interest. Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) expression vectors are useful in driving gene-silencing. Standard shRNA vectors produce a knockdown phenotype soon after transduction. An alternative strategy for conditional gene knockdown would be useful to investigate gene functions in a time-dependent manner. In this study, we developed an inducible gene knockdown system based on lentivirus-mediated gene transfer. A single lentivirus vector capable of inducible expression of a designed microRNA-based shRNA was generated using a tetracycline-dependent transactivation system. The lentiviral vector facilitated doxycycline-dependent inducible knockdown specific to the target gene. Withdrawal of doxycycline after transient treatment resulted in complete recovery of target gene expressions to normal levels. Thus the single lentiviral vector developed in this study should be a powerful tool for doxycycline-dependent inducible and reversible RNA interference in molecular genetic studies.

Actin filament dynamics impacts keratinocyte stem cell maintenance.

Cultured human epidermal keratinocyte stem cells (holoclones) are crucial for regenerative medicine for burns and genetic disorders. In serial culture, holoclones progressively lose their proliferative capacity to become transient amplifying cells with limited growth (paraclones), a phenomenon termed clonal conversion. Although it negatively impacts the culture lifespan and the success of cell transplantation, little is known on the molecular mechanism underlying clonal conversion. Here, we show that holoclones and paraclones differ in their actin filament organization, with actin bundles distributed radially in holoclones and circumferentially in paraclones. Moreover, actin organization sets the stage for a differing response to epidermal growth factor (EGF), since EGF signalling induces a rapid expansion of colony size in holoclones and a significant reduction in paraclones. Furthermore, inhibition of PI3K or Rac1 in holoclones results in the reorganization of actin filaments in a pattern that is similar to that of paraclones. Importantly, continuous Rac1 inhibition in holoclones results in clonal conversion and reduction of growth potential. Together, our data connect loss of stem cells to EGF-induced colony dynamics governed by Rac1.

Human antigen R-mediated mRNA stabilization is required for ultraviolet B-induced autoinduction of amphiregulin in keratinocytes.

All members of the EGF family are produced as transmembrane precursors that are proteolytically processed into soluble forms by disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAMs) for autocrine/paracrine pathways. In turn, the ligand-activated EGF receptor (EGFR) induces the expression of EGF family members, so-called "autoinduction." However, it is not well understood how this autoinduction occurs. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of the autoinduction of amphiregulin (AREG), a member of the EGF family. We found that ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure increased the AREG mRNA level by stabilization of its mRNA in a human immortalized keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT. The 3' UTR of AREG mRNA was responsible for binding to an mRNA-binding protein, human antigen R (HuR), and the interaction between AREG mRNA and HuR was enhanced by UVB. Inducible knockdown of HuR expression significantly decreased AREG mRNA stability. Interestingly, treatment of HaCaT cells with an EGFR inhibitor, an EGFR neutralizing antibody, or an ADAM inhibitor destabilized AREG mRNA. In the case of ADAM inhibition, administration of soluble AREG restored the mRNA level, indicating that the stabilization occurs in a shedding-dependent manner of EGFR ligands. The HuR dependence of AREG mRNA and protein expression was also confirmed in human primary keratinocytes. Taken together, we propose a novel mechanism by which HuR regulates the stability of AREG mRNA in keratinocytes after UVB exposure and suggest that targeting of HuR functions might be crucial for understanding skin cancers caused by aberrant EGF family member-EGFR signaling.