Effects of Resistance Training on Academic Outcomes in School-Aged Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The primary aim of our systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the effect of resistance training on academic outcomes in school-aged youth. METHODS: We conducted a systematic search of six electronic databases (CINAHL Complete, PsycINFO, SCOPUS, Ovid MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and EMBASE) with no date restrictions. Studies were eligible if they: (a) included school-aged youth (5-18 years), and (b) examined the effect of resistance training on academic outcomes (i.e., cognitive function, academic achievement, and/or on-task behaviour in the classroom). Risk of bias was assessed using the appropriate Cochrane Risk of Bias Tools, funnel plots and Egger's regression asymmetry tests. A structural equation modelling approach was used to conduct the meta-analysis. RESULTS: Fifty-three studies were included in our systematic review. Participation in resistance training (ten studies with 53 effect sizes) had a small positive effect on the overall cognitive, academic and on-task behaviours in school-aged youth (standardized mean difference (SMD) 0.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.05-0.32). Resistance training was more effective (SMD 0.26, 95% CI 0.10-0.42) than concurrent training, i.e., the combination of resistance training and aerobic training (SMD 0.11, 95% CI - 0.05-0.28). An additional 43 studies (including 211 effect sizes) examined the association between muscular fitness and cognition or academic achievement, also yielding a positive relationship (SMD 0.13, 95% CI 0.10-0.16). CONCLUSION: This review provides preliminary evidence that resistance training may improve cognitive function, academic performance, and on-task behaviours in school-aged youth. PROSPERO REGISTRATION: CRD42020175695.

Sex moderates the associations between physical activity intensity and attentional control in older adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: The relationship between physical activity (PA) intensity and executive functions in older adolescents remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the associations between PA intensity, volume, attentional control, and working memory and the moderating effects of sex in older adolescents. METHOD: We analyzed baseline data from 418 participants (211 females, Mage  = 16.5 ± 0.40 years) from the Burn 2 Learn trial. Adolescents wore GT9X Link accelerometers on a non-dominant wrist for 7 days, 24-h·d-1 . PA intensity was expressed as intensity gradient (IG) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA, Hildebrand cut-points); PA volume was expressed as average acceleration (AvACC). Attentional control was measured with a standard deviation (SDRT) and a coefficient of variation (CVRT) of the reaction time on the incongruent trials of a flanker task. Working memory was expressed as a d prime (a signal discrimination index) on the 2-back task. The moderating effects of sex on the PA-executive functions associations, adjusting for age, BMI z-score, and cardiorespiratory fitness, were tested using multilevel random intercept models. RESULTS: After controlling for AvACC, sex moderated the relationships between IG and incongruent SDRT (B = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.94) and CVRT (B = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.22, 1.05; ps ≤ 0.002). Only girls with higher IG showed smaller incongruent SDRT and CVRT (Bs ≤ -0.26, ps ≤ 0.01). IG was not related to working memory. AvACC and MVPA were not associated with attentional control or working memory. CONCLUSION: Our findings reveal a novel association between higher-intensity PA and superior attentional control among adolescent girls.

Advocating for Implementation of the Global Action Plan on Physical Activity: Challenges and Support Requirements.

BACKGROUND: There is limited understanding of the challenges experienced and supports required to aid effective advocacy of the Global Action Plan on Physical Activity (GAPPA). The purpose of this study was to assess the challenges experienced and supports needed to advocate for the GAPPA across countries of different income levels. METHODS: Stakeholders working in an area related to the promotion of physical activity were invited to complete an online survey. The survey assessed current awareness and engagement with the GAPPA, factors related to advocacy, and the perceived challenges and supports related to advocacy for implementation of the GAPPA. Closed questions were analyzed in SPSS, with a Pearson's chi-square test used to assess differences between country income level. Open questions were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Participants (n = 518) from 81 countries completed the survey. Significant differences were observed between country income level for awareness of the GAPPA and perceived country engagement with the GAPPA. Challenges related to advocacy included a lack of support and engagement, resources, priority, awareness, advocacy education and training, accessibility, and local application. Supports needed for future advocacy included guidance and support, cooperation and alliance, advocacy education and training, and advocacy resources. CONCLUSIONS: Although stakeholders from different country income levels experience similar advocacy challenges and required supports, how countries experience these can be distinct. This research has highlighted some specific ways in which those involved in the promotion of physical activity can be supported to scale up advocacy for the GAPPA. When implementing such supports, consideration of regional, geographic, and cultural barriers and opportunities is important to ensure they are effective and equitable.

Effects of Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity on Preschool Children's Cognitive Outcomes.

Research combining physical activity with the training of cognitive skills such as executive functions is emerging as a novel and fruitful intervention approach for children. Purpose: This study aimed to examine the impact of an intervention program including cognitively engaging physical activity on preschool children's cognitive outcomes and physical activity. Methods: Children (N = 144, 65 female; Mage = 4.41 years, SD = 0.61), randomly assigned to one of three groups: cognitively engaging physical activity (CPA; i.e., storytelling, cognitive activities, and motor tasks, n = 55), cognition (i.e., storytelling and cognitive activities without motor tasks, n = 48), or control (i.e., traditional storytelling, n = 41). Sessions lasted approximately 17 minutes, conducted twice a week, for 6 weeks. Children's executive function, self-regulation, and related outcomes (i.e., numeracy) were assessed at baseline and again-along with perceived enjoyment-at the end of the program. Accelerometers measured children's physical activity during each session. Teachers completed a logbook for each session, and two fidelity checks per preschool took place by the researcher. Main analyses used linear mixed models adjusted for covariates (age, sex) and clustering at the preschool level. Results: Results showed no significant group by time interaction for executive function, self-regulation, numeracy, enjoyment. During the sessions, children in the CPA group were more physically active than children in the cognition and control groups. Conclusion: While we did not find the expected amplified cognitive benefits, making storytelling more active has the potential to meet two needs (increase cognitive stimulation and physical activity levels) in one deed.

Do Physical Fitness and Executive Function Mediate the Relationship between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement? An Examination Using Structural Equation Modelling.

Background: Physical activity health benefits are widely known. However, the association between physical activity, physical fitness, executive function, and academic performance need further investigation. Additionally, one of the literature gaps reveals scarce and mixed findings on what mediators of physical activity may affect academic achievement. Purpose: This investigation aims to provide knowledge about the mediation role of physical fitness and executive function in the association of physical activity with academic achievement in a cohort of Spanish schoolchildren using a structural equation modelling approach. Methods: The data for this cross-sectional study were collected from a convenience sample of children from Spain (Balearic Islands) aged between 9 and 13 years. Physical activity levels were self-reported with the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children; physical fitness was assessed using the International Fitness Scale; executive function was assessed with the Trail Making Test, and children's achievements were collected from the school records. Structural equation modelling was used to explore the relationship between physical activity, physical fitness, executive function, and academic achievement. Findings: Statistically significant positive direct associations were observed between physical activity and physical fitness (ß = 0.46, 95% CI [0.29, 0.64]), physical fitness and executive function (ß = 0.28, 95% CI [0.04, 0.52]), and executive function and academic achievement (ß = 0.46, 95% CI [0.28, 0.65]), while adjusting for the confounding effects of sex and body mass index. Furthermore, indirect associations were observed between physical activity and executive function mediated by physical fitness (ß = 0.13, bias-corrected 95% CI [0.02, 0.31]) and between physical fitness and academic achievement through executive function (ß = 0.13, bias-corrected 95% CI [0.03, 0.32]). Conclusions: This investigation adds to the literature with evidence supporting the idea that regular PA leads to improvements in physical fitness and may support cognitive skills and academic performance in children.

Effects of Classroom-Based Resistance Training With and Without Cognitive Training on Adolescents' Cognitive Function, On-task Behavior, and Muscular Fitness.

Aim: Participation in classroom physical activity breaks may improve children's cognition, but few studies have involved adolescents. The primary aim of this study was to examine the effects of classroom-based resistance training with and without cognitive training on adolescents' cognitive function. Methods: Participants were 97 secondary school students (45.4% females, mean age 15.78 ± 0.44). Four-year 10 classes from one school were included in this four-arm cluster randomized controlled trial. Classes were randomly assigned to the following groups: sedentary control with no cognitive training, sedentary with cognitive training, resistance training without cognitive training, and resistance training with cognitive training. Sessions varied in levels of both cognitive demand and resistance training (i.e., high vs. low) and were administered three times per week for 4 weeks (12 sessions). Inhibition, cognitive flexibility, episodic memory, on-task behavior, and muscular fitness were assessed at baseline and post-test. Linear mixed models were used to examine changes within and between groups. Results: In comparison with the control group, episodic memory improved significantly in the resistance training without cognitive training group (-9.87 units, 95% CI: -17.71 to -2.03, p = 0.014, d = 0.72). There were no group-by-time effects for inhibition or cognitive flexibility. Classroom activity breaks both with and without cognitive demand improved participants' on-task behavior in comparison with the control and sedentary group. The resistance training programs did not lead to improvements in muscular fitness. Conclusion: Participation in body weight resistance training without cognitive training led to selective improvements in episodic memory. No training effects were found for inhibition or cognitive flexibility. A longer study period may be necessary to induce improvements in muscular fitness and associated changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Clinical Trial Registration: https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621001341819.aspx, Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry-ACTRN12621001341819.

Physical Activity, Fitness, and Executive Functions in Youth: Effects, Moderators, and Mechanisms.

Over the last decade, a growing body of research has examined the link between physical activity, fitness, and cognitive function in children and adolescents. Physical activity experimental research conducted with children and adolescents has identified selectively greater effects for tasks requiring higher order executive functions. As such, the primary aim of our chapter is to provide an overview of findings from systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have examined the effects of physical activity on measures of executive function in child and adolescent populations. We begin our chapter with definitions of key concepts associated with physical activity, fitness and cognitive function. We then provide a synthesis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have examined the acute and chronic effect of physical activity on EFs. Following this, we discuss the quantitative (e.g., time, intensity) and qualitative (e.g., type) characteristics of physical activity that may moderate effects. The next section focuses on the neurobiological, psychosocial and behavioral mechanisms responsible for the effect of physical activity on executive functions. We conclude by highlighting the limitations of the existing evidence base and providing recommendations for future research.

Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity for Targeting Motor, Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Skills in the Preschool Classroom: The Move for Thought preK-K Program.

Despite the growing body of research indicating that integrated physical activity with learning benefits children both physically and cognitively, preschool curricula with integrated physical activities are scarce. The "Move for Thought (M4T) preK-K" program provides activities on fundamental motor skills that are integrated with academic concepts, executive function, and social-emotional skills in the preschool environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility, usability, and effectiveness of the M4T preK-K program over an eight-week period in 16 preschool centers (N=273; M age=4.22 SD=0.61) that were randomly assigned to the intervention (8 M4T; n=138; M age=4.31 SD=0.61) and the control (8 traditional; n=135; M age=4.13 SD=0.60) group. In both groups, teacher ratings of children's attention, behavioral control, and social skills (i.e., cooperation, assertion, and self-control) in the classroom, as well as children's perceived motor skill competence and executive functions, were collected before and after the intervention. A daily teacher log measured intervention fidelity and perceived experiences with the program. Results showed a significant improvement on attention scores for children in the M4T preK-K group, compared to the control group. No significant differences emerged for behavioral control, social skills, executive functions, and perceived motor competence among groups. A significant time effect was evident for executive functions, with both groups improving over time. Further, the program was well-received, easy to implement in the preschool classroom and with high rates of satisfaction for both children and teachers. The M4T preK-K program is promising in helping teachers prepare preschool children for future educational success.

Parents' and Early Childhood Educators' Perceptions on Movement and Learning Program Implementation.

There is currently limited evidence on parents' and early childhood educators' perspectives on implementing programs that combine cognitive and motor tasks in early childhood. An online survey was distributed across Australia through social network platforms and emails at preschool centres, asking 65 parents of preschool children and early childhood educators about their preferences on program delivery, duration, and mode. Responses from the survey were evaluated in order to develop and pilot a 4 week home-based (n = 5 parents) and a 6 week school-based program (n = 5 educators) including cognitively engaging physical activity, requesting parents' and educators' perspectives, respectively, about the program components. Results from the online survey showed a preference for programs with online (e.g., video-based) compared to traditional delivery (e.g., books), emphasising the potential benefits on children's physical activity levels, sleep, and cognitive function. However, after piloting the program, educators preferred to use the book version instead of the video. This program has the potential to become part of daily regular practice. Barriers reported include logistics issues (i.e., book size), connectivity issues with internet, and the need for varying activities.

Classroom-based physical activity and math performance: Integrated physical activity or not?

AIM: This 8-week intervention examined the effect of two different types of classroom-based physical activity on math performance in elementary school children. METHODS: Students in 4th and 5th grade (N = 560; 32 classes, 9-11 years old) from six schools were assigned to integrated physical activity (Move for Thought [M4T], n = 221), activity break (AB; n = 134) and a control group (n = 205; usual instruction) for eight weeks. Students completed a standardised math test before and after the intervention. Programme fidelity was measured with a teacher daily log, recording the duration and frequency of the physical activity sessions. Linear mixed models were used for the analyses. Grade and gender were explored as moderators. RESULTS: Move for Thought group outperformed AB (p < 0.001, d = 0.44) and control groups (p = 0.013, d = 0.38). However, subgroup analyses showed that these effects were evident only in Grade 4. No gender differences were found. Intervention fidelity showed that the classroom-based physical activities (M4T and AB) were used about every other day, with higher implementation among 4th graders. CONCLUSION: This study indicated that integrating physical activity with mathematics has stronger effects on mathematics than activity breaks and traditional instruction.

Time-efficient intervention to improve older adolescents' cardiorespiratory fitness: findings from the 'Burn 2 Learn' cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an important marker of current and future health status. The primary aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of a time-efficient school-based intervention on older adolescents' CRF. METHODS: Two-arm cluster randomised controlled trial conducted in two cohorts (February 2018 to February 2019 and February 2019 to February 2020) in New South Wales, Australia. Participants (N=670, 44.6% women, 16.0±0.43 years) from 20 secondary schools: 10 schools (337 participants) were randomised to the Burn 2 Learn (B2L) intervention and 10 schools (333 participants) to the control. Teachers in schools allocated to the B2L intervention were provided with training, resources, and support to facilitate the delivery of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) activity breaks during curriculum time. Teachers and students in the control group continued their usual practice. The primary outcome was CRF (20 m multi-stage fitness test). Secondary outcomes were muscular fitness, physical activity, hair cortisol concentrations, mental health and cognitive function. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, 6 months (primary end-point) and 12 months. Effects were estimated using mixed models accounting for clustering. RESULTS: We observed a group-by-time effect for CRF (difference=4.1 laps, 95% CI 1.8 to 6.4) at the primary end-point (6 months), but not at 12 months. At 6 months, group-by-time effects were found for muscular fitness, steps during school hours and cortisol. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing HIIT during curricular time improved adolescents' CRF and several secondary outcomes. Our findings suggest B2L is unlikely to be an effective approach unless teachers embed sessions within the school day. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12618000293268).

Review of High-Intensity Interval Training for Cognitive and Mental Health in Youth.

PURPOSE: High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has emerged as a time-efficient strategy to improve children's and adolescents' health-related fitness in comparison to traditional training methods. However, little is known regarding the effects on cognitive function and mental health. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effect of HIIT on cognitive function (basic information processing, executive function) and mental health (well-being, ill-being) outcomes for children and adolescents. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted, and studies were eligible if they 1) included a HIIT protocol, 2) examined cognitive function or mental health outcomes, and 3) examined children or adolescents (5-18 yr). Separate meta-analyses were conducted for acute and chronic studies, with potential moderators (i.e., study duration, risk of bias, participant age, cognitive demand, and study population) also explored. RESULTS: A total of 22 studies were included in the review. In acute studies, small to moderate effects were found for executive function (standardized mean difference [SMD], 0.50, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.03-0.98; P = 0.038) and affect (SMD, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.05-0.62; P = 0.020), respectively. For chronic studies, small significant effects were found for executive function (SMD, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.15-0.76, P < 0.001), well-being (SMD, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.02-0.41; P = 0.029), and ill-being (SMD, -0.35; 95% CI, -0.68 to -0.03; P = 0.035). CONCLUSIONS: Our review provides preliminary review evidence suggesting that participation in HIIT can improve cognitive function and mental health in children and adolescents. Because of the small number of studies and large heterogeneity, more high-quality research is needed to confirm these findings.

Effects of an Acute Physical Activity Break on Test Anxiety and Math Test Performance.

(1) Background: Test anxiety has been found to negatively affect students' mental health and academic performance. A primary explanation for this is that anxiety-related thoughts occupy working memory resources during testing that cannot be used for test-related processes (such as information retrieval and problem-solving). The present intervention study investigated whether physical activity could decrease anxiety levels and improve maths test performance in sixth-grade children. (2) Methods: Sixty-eight children of 11-12 years from two primary schools in New South Wales, Australia were categorised as low or high anxious from their scores on a trait-anxiety questionnaire. After this assessment, they were randomly assigned to the activity break condition, in which they had to do several physical activities of moderate intensity (i.e., star jumps) for 10 min, or the control condition, in which they played a vocabulary game for 10 min. The outcome measures were children's anxiety levels at the beginning, during, and at the end of the test, invested mental effort, perceived task difficulty and maths test performance. (3) Results: Results showed that regardless of the condition, low anxious students performed better on the maths test than high anxious children. No differences were found for any of the variables between the activity break condition and the control condition. (4) Conclusions: Although test anxiety was not reduced as expected, this study showed that short physical activity breaks can be used before examinations without impeding academic performance.

Cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness and mental health in older adolescents: A multi-level cross-sectional analysis.

Physical activity interventions that promote cardiorespiratory (CRF) and muscular fitness (MF) may improve mental health in young adolescents. However, less is known about the links between fitness and mental health in older adolescents, as they are an understudied population. In addition, the association between MF and adolescents' mental health is less clear than it is for CRF. Our primary aim was to investigate whether MF is independently associated with mental health in a sample of older adolescents. Our secondary aim was to determine if the association between fitness and mental health was moderated by sex, socio-economic status (SES) or weight status. Participants were 670 students (16.0 [0.4] years, 44.6% female) from 20 secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia. Mental health (well-being and internalizing problems) was self-reported using the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. We assessed CRF using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run and MF using the push-up and standing long jump tests. After controlling for CRF, MF was not associated with mental health. CRF was associated with well-being (ß = 0.20, p < .001) and internalizing problems (ß = -0.27, p < .001). The strength of association between CRF and mental health was stronger in girls, than boys. No interaction effects were observed for SES or weight status. Although cross-sectional, our findings provide further evidence of the potential benefits of CRF for adolescents' mental health (i.e., well-being and internalizing problems), particularly girls. However, MF may be less relevant for mental health among this population.

Effects of different types of classroom physical activity breaks on children's on-task behaviour, academic achievement and cognition.

AIM: This study examined the effects of different types of classroom physical activity breaks on children's on-task behaviour, academic achievement and cognition. METHODS: Participants were 87 Australian primary school students (mean age 9.11 ± 0.62 years), recruited from one school. Three classes were randomly assigned either to activity breaks only (n = 29), activity breaks and mathematics combined (n = 29), or control conditions involving only mathematical content (n = 29). Students were engaged in five minutes of classroom physical activity breaks, three times per week, for four weeks (divided into two minutes at the beginning of the usual mathematics curriculum lesson and three minutes in the middle of the lesson). Assessments were conducted at baseline and post-test. RESULTS: Significant group-by-time effects were found for on-task behaviour (active engagement: activity breaks and mathematics combined versus control, p ≤ 0.001; activity breaks versus control, p ≤ 0.001; activity breaks and mathematics combined versus activity breaks, p = 0.037; passive engagement: activity breaks and mathematics combined versus control, p ≤ 0.001) and mathematics scores (activity breaks versus control, p = 0.045). CONCLUSION: Physical activity breaks with and without integrated mathematics content were effective in improving children's on-task behaviour and learning scores.

Integrating physical activity into the primary school curriculum: rationale and study protocol for the "Thinking while Moving in English" cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The current and declining physical activity levels of children is a global concern. Integrating physical activity into the school curriculum may be an effective way not only to improve children's physical activity levels but also enhance educational outcomes. Given the recent national focus in Australia on improving the literacy levels of children in primary school, and an increasing proportion of time spent on explicitly teaching these skills, integrating physical activity into English could be a viable strategy to improve literacy levels and physical activity at the same time. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of the 'Thinking While Moving in English' (TWM-E) program on children's physical activity, on-task behavior in the classroom, academic achievement, and executive function. METHODS: Grade 3-4 children from 10 public schools in New South Wales, Australia will be randomly allocated to intervention (n = 5) or control (n = 5) groups. All teachers will receive 1-day workshop of registered professional learning and a TWM-E equipment pack (e.g., chalk, lettered bean bags). Intervention schools will be asked to adapt their English lessons to embed movement-based learning in their daily program for three 40-min lessons per week, over a six-week period. The primary outcome is children's physical activity levels across the school day (measured using accelerometry). Secondary outcomes are children's on-task behavior during English lessons, academic achievement in English, and executive function. A detailed process evaluation will be undertaken including questionnaires, fidelity checks, and teacher and student interviews. DISCUSSION: The TWM-E program has the potential to improve primary school children's physical activity levels, along with academic outcomes (on-task behavior, cognition, and academic achievement), and provide stakeholders with exemplar lessons and guidelines which illustrate how to teach English to children whilst they are moving. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical trial Register ACTRN12618001009202 Date registered: 15/06/2018 retrospectively registered.

Preliminary Efficacy and Feasibility of the "Thinking While Moving in English": A Program with Integrated Physical Activity into the Primary School English Lessons.

Background: The physical, cognitive, and learning benefits of physical activity for children have already been established. However, many schools are failing to provide children with sufficient activity at school due to a crowded school curriculum. Physical activity interventions that integrate physical activity with learning is a way to enhance physical and cognitive benefits without loss of academic time. This study evaluated the preliminary efficacy and feasibility of "Thinking While Moving in English", a primary school program that integrates physical activity into English lessons. Method: Two classes of Grade 4 students (n = 55, 10⁻11 years old) were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 29) or control (n = 26) conditions. The program components consisted of 3 × 40 min physically active academic lessons per week, delivered over a 4-week period. The following measures were taken at baseline and immediate post-intervention: on-task behavior, cognition (inhibition and working memory), and learning outcomes (spelling and grammar). Results: Results revealed significant improvements in on-task behavior and spelling in the intervention group, compared to the control group. There were no observed improvements in cognitive outcomes or grammar. Conclusions: This study provides preliminary evidence for the efficacy of physically active English lessons to enhance children's educational outcomes.