Metformin treatment prevents experimental metabolic syndrome-induced femoral bone marrow adiposity in rats. / Tratamiento con metformina previene la adiposidad de la médula ósea femoral inducida por un síndrome metabólico experimental en ratas.

OBJECTIVE.: Motivation for the study. Most research supports a negative association between metabolic syndrome and bone health, although there is an overall lack of consensus. Therefore, there is a need for research in this area to develop a better understanding. Main findings. Metabolic syndrome induced by a fructose-rich diet increases the adipogenic predisposition of bone marrow progenitor cells and femoral medullary adiposity in rats. Furthermore, this can be partially prevented by co-treatment with metformin. Implications. Experimental metabolic syndrome has negative effects on bone tissue and can be prevented by oral treatment with metformin as a normoglycemic drug. To determine the effect of metformin (MET) treatment on adipogenic predisposition of bone marrow progenitor cells (BMPC), bone marrow adiposity and bone biomechanical properties. MATERIALS AND METHODS.: 20 young adult male Wistar rats were sorted into four groups. Each of the groups received the following in drinking water: 100% water (C); 20% fructose (F); metformin 100 mg/kg wt/day (M); or fructose plus metformin (FM). After five weeks the animals were sacrificed. Both humeri were dissected to obtain BMPC, and both femurs were dissected to evaluate medullary adiposity (histomorphometry) and biomechanical properties (3-point bending). BMPC were cultured in vitro in adipogenic medium to evaluate RUNX2, PPAR-γ and RAGE expression by RT-PCR, lipase activity and triglyceride accumulation. RESULTS.: The fructose-rich diet (group F) caused an increase in both triglycerides in vitro, and medullary adiposity in vivo; being partially or totally prevented by co-treatment with metformin (group FM). No differences were found in femoral biomechanical tests in vivo, nor in lipase activity and RUNX2/PPAR-γ ratio in vitro. DRF increased RAGE expression in BMPC, being prevented by co-treatment with MET. CONCLUSIONS.: Metabolic syndrome induced by a fructose-rich diet increases femoral medullary adiposity and, in part, the adipogenic predisposition of BMPC. In turn, this can be totally or partially prevented by oral co-treatment with MET.

OBJETIVO.: Motivación para realizar el estudio. La mayoría de las investigaciones respaldan una asociación negativa entre el síndrome metabólico y la salud ósea, aunque existe una falta de consenso general. Por lo tanto, es necesario realizar investigaciones en esta área que permitan desarrollar un mejor conocimiento. Principales hallazgos. El síndrome metabólico inducido por una dieta rica en fructosa incrementa la predisposición adipogénica de células progenitoras de médula ósea y la adiposidad medular femoral en ratas. Además, esto puede prevenirse parcialmente mediante un co-tratamiento con metformina. Implicancias. El síndrome metabólico experimental posee efectos negativos sobre el tejido óseo, pudiendo ser prevenidos mediante un tratamiento oral de metformina como fármaco normoglucemiante. Determinar el efecto de un tratamiento con metformina (MET) sobre la predisposición adipogénica de células progenitoras de médula ósea (CPMO), adiposidad de la médula ósea y propiedades biomecánicas óseas. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS.: 20 ratas Wistar machos adultos jóvenes fueron separados en cuatro grupos, recibiendo en agua de bebida: 100% agua (C); 20% de fructosa (F); metformina 100 mg/kg peso/día (M); o fructosa más metformina (FM). Tras cinco semanas se sacrificaron los animales, se diseccionaron ambos húmeros para obtener CPMO, y ambos fémures para evaluar adiposidad medular (histomorfometría) y propiedades biomecánicas (flexión a 3 puntos). Las CPMO se cultivaron in vitro en medio adipogénico para evaluar expresión de RUNX2, PPAR-γ y RAGE por RT-PCR, actividad de lipasa y acumulación de triglicéridos. RESULTADOS.: La dieta rica en fructosa (grupo F) produjo un aumento tanto de triglicéridos in vitro, como de la adiposidad medular in vivo; siendo parcial o totalmente prevenido por un co-tratamiento con metformina (grupo FM). No se observaron diferencias en las pruebas biomecánicas femorales in vivo, ni en actividad de lipasa y relación RUNX2/PPAR-γ in vitro. La DRF aumentó la expresión de RAGE en CPMO, siendo prevenido por co-tratamiento con MET. CONCLUSIONES.: El síndrome metabólico inducido por una dieta rica en fructosa aumenta la adiposidad medular femoral y, en parte, la predisposición adipogénica de las CPMO. A su vez, esto puede ser prevenido total o parcialmente por un co-tratamiento oral con MET.

Tratamiento con metformina previene la adiposidad de la médula ósea femoral inducida por un síndrome metabólico experimental en ratas / Metformin treatment prevents experimental metabolic syndrome-induced femoral bone marrow adiposity in rats

RESUMEN Objetivo. Determinar el efecto de un tratamiento con metformina (MET) sobre la predisposición adipogénica de células progenitoras de médula ósea (CPMO), adiposidad de la médula ósea y propiedades biomecánicas óseas. Materiales y métodos. 20 ratas Wistar machos adultos jóvenes fueron separados en cuatro grupos, recibiendo en agua de bebida: 100% agua (C); 20% de fructosa (F); metformina 100 mg/kg peso/día (M); o fructosa más metformina (FM). Tras cinco semanas se sacrificaron los animales, se diseccionaron ambos húmeros para obtener CPMO, y ambos fémures para evaluar adiposidad medular (histomorfometría) y propiedades biomecánicas (flexión a 3 puntos). Las CPMO se cultivaron in vitro en medio adipogénico para evaluar expresión de RUNX2, PPAR-γ y RAGE por RT-PCR, actividad de lipasa y acumulación de triglicéridos. Resultados. La dieta rica en fructosa (grupo F) produjo un aumento tanto de triglicéridos in vitro, como de la adiposidad medular in vivo; siendo parcial o totalmente prevenido por un co-tratamiento con metformina (grupo FM). No se observaron diferencias en las pruebas biomecánicas femorales in vivo, ni en actividad de lipasa y relación RUNX2/PPAR-γ in vitro. La DRF aumentó la expresión de RAGE en CPMO, siendo prevenido por co-tratamiento con MET. Conclusiones. El síndrome metabólico inducido por una dieta rica en fructosa aumenta la adiposidad medular femoral y, en parte, la predisposición adipogénica de las CPMO. A su vez, esto puede ser prevenido total o parcialmente por un co-tratamiento oral con MET.

ABSTRACT Objective. To determine the effect of metformin (MET) treatment on adipogenic predisposition of bone marrow progenitor cells (BMPC), bone marrow adiposity and bone biomechanical properties. Materials and methods. 20 young adult male Wistar rats were sorted into four groups. Each of the groups received the following in drinking water: 100% water (C); 20% fructose (F); metformin 100 mg/kg wt/day (M); or fructose plus metformin (FM). After five weeks the animals were sacrificed. Both humeri were dissected to obtain BMPC, and both femurs were dissected to evaluate medullary adiposity (histomorphometry) and biomechanical properties (3-point bending). BMPC were cultured in vitro in adipogenic medium to evaluate RUNX2, PPAR-γ and RAGE expression by RT-PCR, lipase activity and triglyceride accumulation. Results. The fructose-rich diet (group F) caused an increase in both triglycerides in vitro, and medullary adiposity in vivo; being partially or totally prevented by co-treatment with metformin (group FM). No differences were found in femoral biomechanical tests in vivo, nor in lipase activity and RUNX2/PPAR-γ ratio in vitro. DRF increased RAGE expression in BMPC, being prevented by co-treatment with MET. Conclusions. Metabolic syndrome induced by a fructose-rich diet increases femoral medullary adiposity and, in part, the adipogenic predisposition of BMPC. In turn, this can be totally or partially prevented by oral co-treatment with MET.

Osteoporosis and vascular calcifications.

In post-menopausal women, aged individuals, and patients with diabetes mellitus or chronic renal disease, bone mineral density (BMD) decreases while the vasculature accumulates arterial calcifications (ACs). AC can be found in the tunica intima and/or in the tunica media. Prospective studies have shown that patients with initially low BMD and/or the presence of fragility fractures have at follow-up a significantly increased risk for coronary and cerebrovascular events and for overall cardiovascular mortality. Similarly, patients presenting with abdominal aorta calcifications (an easily quantifiable marker of vascular pathology) show a significant decrease in the BMD (and an increase in the fragility) of bones irrigated by branches of the abdominal aorta, such as the hip and lumbar spine. AC induction is an ectopic tissue biomineralization process promoted by osteogenic transdifferentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells as well as by local and systemic secreted factors. In many cases, the same regulatory molecules modulate bone metabolism but in reverse. Investigation of animal and in vitro models has identified several potential mechanisms for this reciprocal bone-vascular regulation, such as vitamin K and D sufficiency, advanced glycation end-products-RAGE interaction, osteoprotegerin/RANKL/RANK, Fetuin A, oestrogen deficiency and phytooestrogen supplementation, microbiota and its relation to diet, among others. Complete elucidation of these potential mechanisms, as well as their clinical validation via controlled studies, will provide a basis for pharmacological intervention that could simultaneously promote bone and vascular health.

Systemic oxidative stress in old rats is associated with both osteoporosis and cognitive impairment.

Aging is associated both with an increase in memory loss and with comorbidities such as Osteoporosis, which could be causatively linked. In the present study, a deleterious effect on bone is demonstrated for the first time in a model of aged rats with impaired memory. We show that bone marrow progenitor cells obtained from rats with memory deficit have a decrease in their osteogenic capacity, and an increase both in their osteoclastogenic profile and adipogenic capacity, when compared to aged rats with preserved memory. Rats with impaired (versus preserved) memory also show alterations in long-bone micro-architecture (decreased trabecular bone and osteocyte density, increased TRAP-positive osteoclasts), lower bone quality (decreased trabecular bone mineral content and density) and an increase in bone marrow adiposity. Interestingly, the development of bone alterations and memory deficit in old rats is associated with significantly higher levels of serum oxidative stress (versus unaffected aged rats). In conclusion, we have found for the first time in an aged rat model, a relationship between alterations in bone quality and memory impairment, with increased systemic oxidative stress as a possible unifying mechanism.

Evaluation of Strontium-Containing PCL-PDIPF Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies.

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has the general objective of restoring and improving damaged bone. A very interesting strategy for BTE is to combine an adequate polymeric scaffold with an osteoinductive compound. Strontium is a divalent cation that can substitute calcium in hydroxyapatite and induce both anabolic and anti-catabolic effects in bone. On the other hand, systemic increases in Sr2+ levels can provoke adverse cardiovascular effects. In the present study we have developed a compatibilized blend of poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) and polydiisopropyl fumarate (PDIPF) enriched with 1% or 5% Sr2+ and evaluated the applicability of these biomaterials for BTE, both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, whereas Blend + 5% Sr2+ was pro-inflammatory and anti-osteogenic, Blend + 1% Sr2+ released very low quantities of the cation; was not cytotoxic for cultured macrophages; and showed improved osteocompatibility when used as a substratum for primary cultures of bone marrow stromal cells. In vivo, implants with Blend + 1% Sr2+ significantly increased bone tissue regeneration and improved fibrous bridging (vs. Blend alone), while neither inducing a local inflammatory response nor increased serum levels of Sr2+. These results indicate that our compatibilized blend of PCL-PDIPF enriched with 1% Sr2+ could be useful for BTE.

Multi-Scale Approach for the Evaluation of Bone Mineralization in Strontium Ranelate-Treated Diabetic Rats.

Long-term diabetes mellitus can induce osteopenia and osteoporosis, an increase in the incidence of low-stress fractures, and/or delayed fracture healing. Strontium ranelate (SrR) is a dual-action anti-osteoporotic agent whose use in individuals with diabetic osteopathy has not been adequately evaluated. In this study, we studied the effects of an oral treatment with SrR and/or experimental diabetes on bone composition and biomechanics. Young male Wistar rats (half non-diabetic, half with streptozotocin/nicotinamide-induced diabetes) were either untreated or orally administered 625 mg/kg/day of SrR for 6 weeks. After sacrifice, femora from all animals were evaluated by a multi-scale approach (X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical-emission spectrometry, static histomorphometry, pQCT, and mechanical testing) to determine chemical, crystalline, and biomechanical properties. Untreated diabetic animals (versus untreated non-diabetic) showed a decrease in femoral mineral carbonate content, in cortical thickness and BMC, in trabecular osteocyte density, in maximum load supported at rupture and at yield point, and in overall toughness at mid-shaft. Treatment of diabetic animals with SrR further affected several parameters of bone (some already impaired by diabetes): crystallinity index (indicating less mature apatite crystals); trabecular area, BMC, and vBMD; maximum load at yield point; and structural elastic rigidity. However, SrR was also able to prevent the diabetes-induced decreases in trabecular osteocyte density (completely) and in bone ultimate strength at rupture (partially). Our results indicate that SrR treatment can partially but significantly prevent some bone structural mechanical properties as previously affected by diabetes, but not others (which may even be worsened).

Advanced glycation end products and strontium ranelate promote osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro: Preventive role of vitamin D.

Advanced glycation end products (AGE) have been demonstrated to induce the osteogenic trans-differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Strontium ranelate (SR) is an anti-osteoporotic agent that has both anti-catabolic and anabolic actions on bone tissue. However, in the last years SR has been associated with an increase of cardiovascular risk. We hypothesize that SR can increase the osteoblastic trans-differentiation of VSMC and the induction of extracellular calcifications, an effect that could be potentiated in the presence of AGE and inhibited by simultaneous administration of vitamin D. The present results of our in vitro experiments demonstrate that AGE and SR alone or in combination, stimulate L-type calcium channels, causing an increase in reactive oxygen species and activation of both ERK and NFkB, with the final effect of promoting the osteogenic shift of VSMC. Importantly, these in vitro effects of AGE and/or SR can be prevented by co-incubation with vitamin D.

Effects of fructose-induced metabolic syndrome on rat skeletal cells and tissue, and their responses to metformin treatment.

AIMS: Deleterious effects of metabolic syndrome (MS) on bone are still controversial. In this study we evaluated the effects of a fructose-induced MS, and/or an oral treatment with metformin on the osteogenic potential of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC), as well as on bone formation and architecture. METHODS: 32 male 8week-old Wistar rats were assigned to four groups: control (C), control plus oral metformin (CM), rats receiving 10% fructose in drinking water (FRD), and FRD plus metformin (FRDM). Samples were collected to measure blood parameters, and to perform pQCT analysis and static and dynamic histomorphometry. MSC were isolated to determine their osteogenic potential. RESULTS: Metformin improved blood parameters in FRDM rats. pQCT and static and dynamic histomorphometry showed no significant differences in trabecular and cortical bone parameters among groups. FRD reduced TRAP expression and osteocyte density in trabecular bone and metformin only normalized osteocyte density. FRD decreased the osteogenic potential of MSC and metformin administration could revert some of these parameters. CONCLUSIONS: FRD-induced MS shows reduction in MSC osteogenic potential, in osteocyte density and in TRAP activity. Oral metformin treatment was able to prevent trabecular osteocyte loss and the reduction in extracellular mineralization induced by FRD-induced MS.

Alendronate Can Improve Bone Alterations in Experimental Diabetes by Preventing Antiosteogenic, Antichondrogenic, and Proadipocytic Effects of AGEs on Bone Marrow Progenitor Cells.

Bisphosphonates such as alendronate are antiosteoporotic drugs that inhibit the activity of bone-resorbing osteoclasts and secondarily promote osteoblastic function. Diabetes increases bone-matrix-associated advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that impair bone marrow progenitor cell (BMPC) osteogenic potential and decrease bone quality. Here we investigated the in vitro effect of alendronate and/or AGEs on the osteoblastogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic potential of BMPC isolated from nondiabetic untreated rats. We also evaluated the in vivo effect of alendronate (administered orally to rats with insulin-deficient Diabetes) on long-bone microarchitecture and BMPC multilineage potential. In vitro, the osteogenesis (Runx2, alkaline phosphatase, type 1 collagen, and mineralization) and chondrogenesis (glycosaminoglycan production) of BMPC were both decreased by AGEs, while coincubation with alendronate prevented these effects. The adipogenesis of BMPC (PPARγ, intracellular triglycerides, and lipase) was increased by AGEs, and this was prevented by coincubation with alendronate. In vivo, experimental Diabetes (a) decreased femoral trabecular bone area, osteocyte density, and osteoclastic TRAP activity; (b) increased bone marrow adiposity; and (c) deregulated BMPC phenotypic potential (increasing adipogenesis and decreasing osteogenesis and chondrogenesis). Orally administered alendronate prevented all these Diabetes-induced effects on bone. Thus, alendronate could improve bone alterations in diabetic rats by preventing the antiosteogenic, antichondrogenic, and proadipocytic effects of AGEs on BMPC.

Metformin revisited: Does this regulator of AMP-activated protein kinase secondarily affect bone metabolism and prevent diabetic osteopathy.

Patients with long-term type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) can develop skeletal complications or "diabetic osteopathy". These include osteopenia, osteoporosis and an increased incidence of low-stress fractures. In this context, it is important to evaluate whether current anti-diabetic treatments can secondarily affect bone metabolism. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) modulates multiple metabolic pathways and acts as a sensor of the cellular energy status; recent evidence suggests a critical role for AMPK in bone homeostasis. In addition, AMPK activation is believed to mediate most clinical effects of the insulin-sensitizer metformin. Over the past decade, several research groups have investigated the effects of metformin on bone, providing a considerable body of pre-clinical (in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo) as well as clinical evidence for an anabolic action of metformin on bone. However, two caveats should be kept in mind when considering metformin treatment for a patient with type 2 DM at risk for diabetic osteopathy. In the first place, metformin should probably not be considered an anti-osteoporotic drug; it is an insulin sensitizer with proven macrovascular benefits that can secondarily improve bone metabolism in the context of DM. Secondly, we are still awaiting the results of randomized placebo-controlled studies in humans that evaluate the effects of metformin on bone metabolism as a primary endpoint.

Strontium ranelate stimulates the activity of bone-specific alkaline phosphatase: interaction with Zn(2+) and Mg (2+).

Strontium ranelate (SR) is an orally administered and bone-targeting anti-osteoporotic agent that increases osteoblast-mediated bone formation while decreasing osteoclastic bone resorption, and thus reduces the risk of vertebral and femoral bone fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Osteoblastic alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is a key enzyme involved in the process of bone formation and osteoid mineralization. In this study we investigated the direct effect of strontium (SR and SrCl2) on the activity of ALP obtained from UMR106 osteosarcoma cells, as well as its possible interactions with the divalent cations Zn(2+) and Mg(2+). In the presence of Mg(2+), both SR and SrCl2 (0.05-0.5 mM) significantly increased ALP activity (15-66 % above basal), and this was dose-dependent in the case of SR. The stimulatory effect of strontium disappeared in the absence of Mg(2+). The cofactor Zn(2+) also increased ALP activity (an effect that reached a plateau at 2 mM), and co-incubation of 2 mM Zn(2+) with 0.05-0.5 mM SR showed an additive effect on ALP activity stimulation. SR induced a dose-dependent decrease in the Km of ALP (and thus an increase in affinity for its substrate) with a maximal effect at 0.1 mM. Co-incubation with 2 mM Zn(2+) further decreased Km in all cases. These direct effects of SR on osteoblastic ALP activity could be indicating an alternative mechanism by which this compound may regulate bone matrix mineralization.

Saxagliptin affects long-bone microarchitecture and decreases the osteogenic potential of bone marrow stromal cells.

Diabetes mellitus is associated with a decrease in bone quality and an increase in fracture incidence. Additionally, treatment with anti-diabetic drugs can either adversely or positively affect bone metabolism. In this study we evaluated: the effect of a 3-week oral treatment with saxagliptin on femoral microarchitecture in young male non-type-2-diabetic Sprague Dawley rats; and the in vitro effect of saxagliptin and/or fetal bovine serum (FBS), insulin or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1), on the proliferation, differentiation (Runx2 and PPAR-gamma expression, type-1 collagen production, osteocalcin expression, mineralization) and extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) activation, in bone marrow stromal cells (MSC) obtained from control (untreated) rats and in MC3T3E1 osteoblast-like cells. In vivo, oral saxagliptin treatment induced a significant decrease in the femoral osteocytic and osteoblastic density of metaphyseal trabecular bone and in the average height of the proximal cartilage growth plate; and an increase in osteoclastic tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity of the primary spongiosa. In vitro, saxagliptin inhibited FBS-, insulin- and IGF1-induced ERK phosphorylation and cell proliferation, in both MSC and MC3T3E1 preosteoblasts. In the absence of growth factors, saxagliptin had no effect on ERK activation or cell proliferation. In both MSC and MC3T3E1 cells, saxagliptin in the presence of FBS inhibited Runx2 and osteocalcin expression, type-1 collagen production and mineralization, while increasing PPAR-gamma expression. In conclusion, orally administered saxagliptin induced alterations in long-bone microarchitecture that could be related to its in vitro down-regulation of the ERK signaling pathway for insulin and IGF1 in MSC, thus decreasing the osteogenic potential of these cells.

Effects of a metabolic syndrome induced by a fructose-rich diet on bone metabolism in rats.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were: first, to evaluate the possible effects of a fructose rich diet (FRD)-induced metabolic syndrome (MS) on different aspects of long bone histomorphometry in young male rats; second, to investigate the effects of this diet on bone tissue regeneration; and third, to correlate these morphometric alterations with changes in the osteogenic/adipogenic potential and expression of specific transcription factors, of marrow stromal cells (MSC) isolated from rats with fructose-induced MS. MATERIALS/METHODS: MS was induced in rats by treatment with a FRD for 28 days. Halfway through treatment, a parietal wound was made and bone healing was evaluated 14 days later. After treatments, histomorphometric analysis was performed in dissected femoral and parietal bones. MSC were isolated from the femora of control or fructose-treated rats and differentiated either to osteoblasts (evaluated by type 1 collagen, Alkaline phosphatase and extracellular nodule mineralization) or to adipocytes (evaluated by intracellular triglyceride accumulation). Expression of Runx2 and PPARγ was assessed by Western blot. RESULTS: Fructose-induced MS induced deleterious effects on femoral metaphysis microarchitecture and impaired bone regeneration. Fructose treatment decreased the osteogenic potential of MSC and Runx2 expression. In addition, it increased the adipogenic commitment of MSC and PPARγ expression. CONCLUSIONS: Fructose-induced MS is associated with deleterious effects on bone microarchitecture and with a decrease in bone repair. These alterations could be due to a deviation in the adipogenic/osteogenic commitment of MSC, probably by modulation of the Runx2/PPARγ ratio.

Insulin-deficient diabetes-induced bone microarchitecture alterations are associated with a decrease in the osteogenic potential of bone marrow progenitor cells: preventive effects of metformin.

AIMS: Diabetes mellitus is associated with metabolic bone disease and increased low-impact fractures. The insulin-sensitizer metformin possesses in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo osteogenic effects, although this has not been adequately studied in the context of diabetes. We evaluated the effect of insulin-deficient diabetes and/or metformin on bone microarchitecture, on osteogenic potential of bone marrow progenitor cells (BMPC) and possible mechanisms involved. METHODS: Partially insulin-deficient diabetes was induced in rats by nicotinamide/streptozotocin-injection, with or without oral metformin treatment. Femoral metaphysis micro-architecture, ex vivo osteogenic potential of BMPC, and BMPC expression of Runx-2, PPARγ and receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) were investigated. RESULTS: Histomorphometric analysis of diabetic femoral metaphysis demonstrated a slight decrease in trabecular area and a significant reduction in osteocyte density, growth plate height and TRAP (tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase) activity in the primary spongiosa. BMPC obtained from diabetic animals showed a reduction in Runx-2/PPARγ ratio and in their osteogenic potential, and an increase in RAGE expression. Metformin treatment prevented the diabetes-induced alterations in bone micro-architecture and BMPC osteogenic potential. CONCLUSION: Partially insulin-deficient diabetes induces deleterious effects on long-bone micro-architecture that are associated with a decrease in BMPC osteogenic potential, which could be mediated by a decrease in their Runx-2/PPARγ ratio and up-regulation of RAGE. These diabetes-induced alterations can be totally or partially prevented by oral administration of metformin.

Morphological changes induced by advanced glycation endproducts in osteoblastic cells: effects of co-incubation with alendronate.

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) accumulate with age in various tissues, and are further increased in patients with Diabetes mellitus, in which they are believed to contribute to the development and progression of chronic complications that include a decrease in bone quality. Bisphosphonates are anti-osteoporotic drugs that have been used for the treatment of patients with diabetic bone alterations, although with contradictory results. In the present study, we have evaluated the in vitro alterations on osteoblastic morphology by environmental scanning electron microscopy, in actin cytoskeleton and apoptosis induced by AGEs, as well as the modulation of these effects by alendronate (an N-containing bisphosphonate). Our present results provide evidence for disruption induced by AGEs of the osteoblastic actin cytoskeleton (geodesic domes) and significant alterations in cell morphology with a decrease in cell-substratum interactions leading to an increase in apoptosis of osteoblasts and a decrease in osteoblastic proliferation. High concentrations of alendronate (10(-5)M, such as could be expected in an osteoclastic lacuna) further increase osteoblastic morphological and cytoskeletal alterations. However, low doses of alendronate (10(-8)M, compatible with extracellular fluid levels to which an osteoblast could be exposed for most of its life cycle) do not affect cell morphology, and in addition are able to prevent AGEs-induced alterations and consequently apoptosis of osteoblasts.

Strontium ranelate prevents the deleterious action of advanced glycation endproducts on osteoblastic cells via calcium channel activation.

Accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) in bone tissue occurs in ageing and in Diabetes mellitus, and is partly responsible for the increased risk of low-stress bone fractures observed in these conditions. In this study we evaluated whether the anti-osteoporotic agent strontium ranelate can prevent the deleterious effects of AGEs on bone cells, and possible mechanisms of action involved. Using mouse MC3T3E1 osteoblastic cells in culture we evaluated the effects of 0.1mM strontium ranelate and/or 100 µg/ml AGEs-modified bovine serum albumin (AGEs-BSA) on cell proliferation, osteogenic differentiation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. We found that AGEs-BSA alone decreased osteoblastic proliferation and differentiation (P<0.01) while increasing IL-1ß and TNFα production (P<0.01). On its own, strontium ranelate induced opposite effects: an increase in osteoblast proliferation and differentiation (P<0.01) and a decrease in cytokine secretion (P<0.01). Additionally, strontium ranelate prevented the inhibitory and pro-inflammatory actions of AGEs-BSA on osteoblastic cells (P<0.01). These effects of strontium ranelate were blocked by co-incubation with either the MAPK inhibitor PD98059, or the calcium channel blocker nifedipine. We also evaluated by Western blotting the activation status of ERK (a MAPK) and b-catenin. Activation of both signaling pathways was decreased by AGEs treatment, and this inhibitory effect was prevented if AGEs were co-incubated with strontium ranelate (P<0.01). On its own, strontium ranelate increased both pERK and activated b-catenin levels. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that strontium ranelate can prevent the deleterious in vitro actions of AGEs on osteoblastic cells in culture by mechanisms that involve calcium channel, MAPK and b-catenin activation.

Efectos de los productos de glicación avanzada (AGEs) y alendronato sobre el desarrollo osteoclástico: posibles mecanismos de acción / Effect of Advanced Glycation Endproducts and Alendronate on osteoclastic development: possible mechanisms of action

Introducción: En la Diabetes Mellitus se ha descripto un incremento en el riesgo de fracturas, las cuales podrían asociarse a la acumulación de productos de glicación avanzada (AGEs) que alteran la función de los osteoclastos (Oc), células gigantes multinucleadas encargadas de resorber el hueso. Los bifosfonatos (BP), drogas ampliamente usadas en enfermedades áseas, inhiben la actividad resortiva de los Oc, aunque su uso en pacientes diabéticos es controversial. Objetivo: Estudiar el efecto de AGEs y alendronato sobre el desarrollo de Oc en cultivo, así como los posibles mecanismos involucrados en la acción de estos agentes. Materiales y Métodos: Se cocultivaron macráfagos Raw264.7 y osteoblastos UMR-106 durante 8 días, con BSA o AGE (50-200 µg/ml), con o sin alendronato (10-8-10-4M). Se evaluá el efecto de estas condiciones de cultivo sobre la formación de Oc (número de los mismos, y actividad de fosfatasa ácida tartrato-resistente [TRAP] ), la expresión de RAGE (Receptor de AGEs) en los Oc, y la expresión del ligando de RANK (RANKL) en los osteoblastos por inmunofluorescencia indirecta. Resultados: Los AGEs (50-200 µg/ml) inhibieron en forma dosis-dependiente la TRAP (10-30 %) y el número de osteoclastos generados (55 %), similarmente a lo inducido por bajas dosis de alendronato (10-8M-10-6M). La coincubación de bajas dosis de alendronato con 100 µg/ml de AGEs no indujo una inhibición adicional a la de los AGEs sobre la actividad de TRAP o el número de Oc. Altos niveles de alendronato (10-5M-10-4M) inhibieron la actividad TRAP (20-25 % respecto a BSA y 17 % respecto de AGEs), así como el número de Oc desarrollados en presencia de AGEs (16 % con respecto a AGEs). Los Oc incubados en presencia de 100 µg/ml AGEs mostraron un incremento significativo en la expresión de RAGE (152 % respecto de BSA), situación similar a la observada postincubación con alendronato 10-8M (130 % respecto de BSA). Por el contrario, altas dosis de alendronato (10-5M) no modificaron la expresión del RAGE en los cocultivos incubados con BSA (95 % respecto de BSA). Por otro lado, bajas dosis de alendronato en presencia de AGEs no alteraron la "up-regulation" del RAGE inducida por los AGEs (145 % respecto de BSA). Sin embargo, cuando los Oc se incubaron con AGEs y Ale 10-5M, esta dosis del bifosfonato bloqueá el efecto estimulante de los AGEs sobre la expresión de RAGE (105 % respecto de BSA). La incubación con 100 µg/ml AGE produjo una inhibición (50 % respecto de BSA), en la expresión del RANKL en los osteoblastos. El alendronato (10-8M-10-5M) indujo también una inhibición del RANKL en forma dosis dependiente (65-47 % respecto de BSA). Por otro lado en presencia de AGEs, el alendronato (10-8M-10-5M) no modificá la inhibición de la expresión del RANKL inducida por los AGEs (59-45 % del BSA). Conclusiones: Los AGEs y el alendronato inhiben el número y diferenciación de Oc en cultivo, con un efecto aditivo entre ambos a altas concentraciones de alendronato. También reducen la expresión de RANKL en osteoblastos, lo cual podría explicar parcialmente sus efectos sobre el reclutamiento y la maduración de Oc. Los AGEs y bajas dosis de alendronato aumentan la expresión de RAGE en Oc.

Introduction: Patients with Diabetes mellitus frequently show osteopenia and/or osteoporosis, as well as an increase in low-trauma fracture risk. This has been postulated to be caused partially by the accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) in bone extracellular matrix. AGEs could affect the homeostasis of bone cells, such as osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. Osteoclasts (Oc) are multi-nucleated cells specialized in resorbing bone. Bisphosphonates (BP) are drugs widely used for treatment of bone diseases, and their principal mechanism of action is to inhibit the resorptive action of Oc. However, the use of BP for the treatment of patients with Diabetes-related bone disease is still controversial. Objective: To study the effect of AGEs and Alendronate (an N-containing BP) on the development of Oc in culture, as well as possible mechanisms of action involved in these effects. Materials and Methods: RAW264.7 macrophages and UMR106 osteoblasts were co-cultured for 8 days, with BSA or AGEs (50-200 µg/ml), with or without Alendronate (10-8-10-4M). The effect of these culture conditions on Oc formation was evaluated (number of Oc, cell-associated tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase [TRAP] activity), as well as Oc expression of RAGE (receptor for AGEs), and osteoblastic expression of RANK ligand (RANKL). These last two parameters were evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence, in order to estimate the expression and sub-cellular distribution of both membrane-associated proteins. Results: AGEs (50-200 µg/ml) dose-dependently inhibited TRAP activity (10-30 %) and the number of multinucleated Oc (55 %). Similar results were observed for low doses of Alendronate (10-8M-10-6M). The co-incubation of low doses of Alendronate with 100 mg/ml of AGEs, did not induce an additional inhibition of TRAP activity or Oc number, to that observed for AGEs alone. High levels of Alendronate (10-5M-10-4M) inhibited Oc TRAP activity (20-25 % inhibition versus BSA, and 17 % versus AGEs), and also decreased the number of Oc formed in the presence of AGEs (16 % inhibition versus AGEs). Oc incubated in the presence of 100 µg/ml AGEs, showed a significant increase in the expression of RAGE (152 % versus BSA). Similar results were found after incubating with 10-8M Alendronate (130 % versus BSA). On the contrary, high doses of Alendronate (10-5M) did not affect the expression of RAGE in co-cultures incubated with BSA (95 % versus BSA). On the other hand, low doses of Alendronate in the presence of AGEs, did not affect the up-regulation of RAGE induced by AGEs (145 % versus BSA). However, when the Oc were co-incubated with AGEs and 10-5M Alendronate, this dose of BP was able to block the stimulation of RAGE expression induced by AGEs (105 % versus BSA). In osteoblasts, incubation with 100 µg/ml AGEs induced an inhibition in the expression of RANKL (50 % versus BSA). Alendronate (10-8M-10-5M) also inhibited RANKL expression in a dose-dependent manner (65-47 % versus BSA). However, Alendronate (10-8M-10-5M) did not modify the AGEs-induced inhibition in osteoblastic RANKL expression (59-45 % versus BSA). Conclusions: AGEs and Alendronate inhibit the number and differentiation of Oc in culture, with an additive effect for both agents at high Alendronate concentrations. AGEs and Alendronate also reduce the osteoblastic expression of RANKL, which could partially explain their effects on the recruitment and maturation of Oc. In addition, AGEs and low doses of Alendronate increase the expression of RAGE in cultured Oc, and this effect correlates with their inhibition of Oc development.

Efectos de los productos de glicación avanzada (AGEs) y alendronato sobre el desarrollo osteoclástico: posibles mecanismos de acción / Effect of Advanced Glycation Endproducts and Alendronate on osteoclastic development: possible mechanisms of action

Introducción: En la Diabetes Mellitus se ha descripto un incremento en el riesgo de fracturas, las cuales podrían asociarse a la acumulación de productos de glicación avanzada (AGEs) que alteran la función de los osteoclastos (Oc), células gigantes multinucleadas encargadas de resorber el hueso. Los bifosfonatos (BP), drogas ampliamente usadas en enfermedades áseas, inhiben la actividad resortiva de los Oc, aunque su uso en pacientes diabéticos es controversial. Objetivo: Estudiar el efecto de AGEs y alendronato sobre el desarrollo de Oc en cultivo, así como los posibles mecanismos involucrados en la acción de estos agentes. Materiales y Métodos: Se cocultivaron macráfagos Raw264.7 y osteoblastos UMR-106 durante 8 días, con BSA o AGE (50-200 Ag/ml), con o sin alendronato (10-8-10-4M). Se evaluá el efecto de estas condiciones de cultivo sobre la formación de Oc (número de los mismos, y actividad de fosfatasa ácida tartrato-resistente [TRAP] ), la expresión de RAGE (Receptor de AGEs) en los Oc, y la expresión del ligando de RANK (RANKL) en los osteoblastos por inmunofluorescencia indirecta. Resultados: Los AGEs (50-200 Ag/ml) inhibieron en forma dosis-dependiente la TRAP (10-30 %) y el número de osteoclastos generados (55 %), similarmente a lo inducido por bajas dosis de alendronato (10-8M-10-6M). La coincubación de bajas dosis de alendronato con 100 Ag/ml de AGEs no indujo una inhibición adicional a la de los AGEs sobre la actividad de TRAP o el número de Oc. Altos niveles de alendronato (10-5M-10-4M) inhibieron la actividad TRAP (20-25 % respecto a BSA y 17 % respecto de AGEs), así como el número de Oc desarrollados en presencia de AGEs (16 % con respecto a AGEs). Los Oc incubados en presencia de 100 Ag/ml AGEs mostraron un incremento significativo en la expresión de RAGE (152 % respecto de BSA), situación similar a la observada postincubación con alendronato 10-8M (130 % respecto de BSA). Por el contrario, altas dosis de alendronato (10-5M) no modificaron la expresión del RAGE en los cocultivos incubados con BSA (95 % respecto de BSA). Por otro lado, bajas dosis de alendronato en presencia de AGEs no alteraron la "up-regulation" del RAGE inducida por los AGEs (145 % respecto de BSA). Sin embargo, cuando los Oc se incubaron con AGEs y Ale 10-5M, esta dosis del bifosfonato bloqueá el efecto estimulante de los AGEs sobre la expresión de RAGE (105 % respecto de BSA). La incubación con 100 Ag/ml AGE produjo una inhibición (50 % respecto de BSA), en la expresión del RANKL en los osteoblastos. El alendronato (10-8M-10-5M) indujo también una inhibición del RANKL en forma dosis dependiente (65-47 % respecto de BSA). Por otro lado en presencia de AGEs, el alendronato (10-8M-10-5M) no modificá la inhibición de la expresión del RANKL inducida por los AGEs (59-45 % del BSA). Conclusiones: Los AGEs y el alendronato inhiben el número y diferenciación de Oc en cultivo, con un efecto aditivo entre ambos a altas concentraciones de alendronato. También reducen la expresión de RANKL en osteoblastos, lo cual podría explicar parcialmente sus efectos sobre el reclutamiento y la maduración de Oc. Los AGEs y bajas dosis de alendronato aumentan la expresión de RAGE en Oc.(AU)

Introduction: Patients with Diabetes mellitus frequently show osteopenia and/or osteoporosis, as well as an increase in low-trauma fracture risk. This has been postulated to be caused partially by the accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) in bone extracellular matrix. AGEs could affect the homeostasis of bone cells, such as osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. Osteoclasts (Oc) are multi-nucleated cells specialized in resorbing bone. Bisphosphonates (BP) are drugs widely used for treatment of bone diseases, and their principal mechanism of action is to inhibit the resorptive action of Oc. However, the use of BP for the treatment of patients with Diabetes-related bone disease is still controversial. Objective: To study the effect of AGEs and Alendronate (an N-containing BP) on the development of Oc in culture, as well as possible mechanisms of action involved in these effects. Materials and Methods: RAW264.7 macrophages and UMR106 osteoblasts were co-cultured for 8 days, with BSA or AGEs (50-200 Ag/ml), with or without Alendronate (10-8-10-4M). The effect of these culture conditions on Oc formation was evaluated (number of Oc, cell-associated tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase [TRAP] activity), as well as Oc expression of RAGE (receptor for AGEs), and osteoblastic expression of RANK ligand (RANKL). These last two parameters were evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence, in order to estimate the expression and sub-cellular distribution of both membrane-associated proteins. Results: AGEs (50-200 Ag/ml) dose-dependently inhibited TRAP activity (10-30 %) and the number of multinucleated Oc (55 %). Similar results were observed for low doses of Alendronate (10-8M-10-6M). The co-incubation of low doses of Alendronate with 100 mg/ml of AGEs, did not induce an additional inhibition of TRAP activity or Oc number, to that observed for AGEs alone. High levels of Alendronate (10-5M-10-4M) inhibited Oc TRAP activity (20-25 % inhibition versus BSA, and 17 % versus AGEs), and also decreased the number of Oc formed in the presence of AGEs (16 % inhibition versus AGEs). Oc incubated in the presence of 100 Ag/ml AGEs, showed a significant increase in the expression of RAGE (152 % versus BSA). Similar results were found after incubating with 10-8M Alendronate (130 % versus BSA). On the contrary, high doses of Alendronate (10-5M) did not affect the expression of RAGE in co-cultures incubated with BSA (95 % versus BSA). On the other hand, low doses of Alendronate in the presence of AGEs, did not affect the up-regulation of RAGE induced by AGEs (145 % versus BSA). However, when the Oc were co-incubated with AGEs and 10-5M Alendronate, this dose of BP was able to block the stimulation of RAGE expression induced by AGEs (105 % versus BSA). In osteoblasts, incubation with 100 Ag/ml AGEs induced an inhibition in the expression of RANKL (50 % versus BSA). Alendronate (10-8M-10-5M) also inhibited RANKL expression in a dose-dependent manner (65-47 % versus BSA). However, Alendronate (10-8M-10-5M) did not modify the AGEs-induced inhibition in osteoblastic RANKL expression (59-45 % versus BSA). Conclusions: AGEs and Alendronate inhibit the number and differentiation of Oc in culture, with an additive effect for both agents at high Alendronate concentrations. AGEs and Alendronate also reduce the osteoblastic expression of RANKL, which could partially explain their effects on the recruitment and maturation of Oc. In addition, AGEs and low doses of Alendronate increase the expression of RAGE in cultured Oc, and this

Metformin prevents anti-osteogenic in vivo and ex vivo effects of rosiglitazone in rats.

Long-term treatment with the insulin-sensitizer rosiglitazone reduces bone mass and increases fracture risk. We have recently shown that orally administered metformin stimulates bone reossification and increases the osteogenic potential of bone marrow progenitor cells (BMPC). In the present study we investigated the effect of a 2-week metformin and/or rosiglitazone treatment on bone repair, trabecular bone microarchitecture and BMPC osteogenic potential, in young male Sprague-Dawley rats. Compared to untreated controls, rosiglitazone monotherapy decreased bone regeneration, femoral metaphysis trabecular area, osteoblastic and osteocytic density, and TRAP activity associated with epiphyseal growth plates. It also decreased the ex vivo osteogenic commitment of BMPC, inducing an increase in PPARγ expression, and a decrease in Runx2/Cbfa1 expression, in AMP-kinase phosphorylation, and in osteoblastic differentiation and mineralization. After monotherapy with metformin, with the exception of PPARγ expression which was blunted, all of the above parameters were significantly increased (compared to untreated controls). Metformin/rosiglitazone co-treatment prevented all the in vivo and ex vivo anti-osteogenic effects of rosiglitazone monotherapy, with a reversion back to control levels of PPARγ, Runx2/Cbfa1 and AMP-kinase phosphorylation of BMPC. In vitro co-incubation of BMPC with metformin and compound C-an inhibitor of AMPK phosphorylation-abrogated the metformin-induced increase in type-1 collagen production, a marker of osteoblastic differentiation. In conclusion, in rodent models metformin not only induces direct osteogenic in vivo and ex vivo actions, but when it is administered orally in combination with rosiglitazone it can prevent several of the adverse effects that this thiazolidenedione shows on bone tissue.

Universal versus selective screening for the detection, control and prognosis of gestational diabetes mellitus in Argentina.

In all, 1,702 unselected pregnant women from the city of La Plata were tested for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and evaluated to determine GDM prevalence and risk factors. In women with GDM, we evaluated compliance with guidelines for GDM management, and perinatal complications attributable to GDM. GDM prevalence was 5.8%, and its risk factors were pre-gestational obesity, previous hyperglycaemia, age > 30 years, previous GDM (and its surrogate markers). In primi-gravida (PG) subjects, GDM was equally prevalent in the presence (4.2%) or absence (4.0%) of risk factors. In multi-gravida (MG) women, although risk factors doubled the prevalence of GDM (8.6%), in the absence of risk factors GDM prevalence was similar to that of PG women (3.9%). Half of all women with GDM received inadequate post-diagnosis obstetric control, and this induced a fourfold increase in infant perinatal complications. In conclusion, all non-hyperglycaemic 24-28-week pregnant women should be tested for GDM, although particular attention must be paid to MG women with risk factors.