Multi-omics analysis of sarcospan overexpression in mdx skeletal muscle reveals compensatory remodeling of cytoskeleton-matrix interactions that promote mechanotransduction pathways.

BACKGROUND: The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) is a critical adhesion complex of the muscle cell membrane, providing a mechanical link between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the cortical cytoskeleton that stabilizes the sarcolemma during repeated muscle contractions. One integral component of the DGC is the transmembrane protein, sarcospan (SSPN). Overexpression of SSPN in the skeletal muscle of mdx mice (murine model of DMD) restores muscle fiber attachment to the ECM in part through an associated increase in utrophin and integrin adhesion complexes at the cell membrane, protecting the muscle from contraction-induced injury. In this study, we utilized transcriptomic and ECM protein-optimized proteomics data sets from wild-type, mdx, and mdx transgenic (mdxTG) skeletal muscle tissues to identify pathways and proteins driving the compensatory action of SSPN overexpression. METHODS: The tibialis anterior and quadriceps muscles were isolated from wild-type, mdx, and mdxTG mice and subjected to bulk RNA-Seq and global proteomics analysis using methods to enhance capture of ECM proteins. Data sets were further analyzed through the ingenuity pathway analysis (QIAGEN) and integrative gene set enrichment to identify candidate networks, signaling pathways, and upstream regulators. RESULTS: Through our multi-omics approach, we identified 3 classes of differentially expressed genes and proteins in mdxTG muscle, including those that were (1) unrestored (significantly different from wild type, but not from mdx), (2) restored (significantly different from mdx, but not from wild type), and (3) compensatory (significantly different from both wild type and mdx). We identified signaling pathways that may contribute to the rescue phenotype, most notably cytoskeleton and ECM organization pathways. ECM-optimized proteomics revealed an increased abundance of collagens II, V, and XI, along with ß-spectrin in mdxTG samples. Using ingenuity pathway analysis, we identified upstream regulators that are computationally predicted to drive compensatory changes, revealing a possible mechanism of SSPN rescue through a rewiring of cell-ECM bidirectional communication. We found that SSPN overexpression results in upregulation of key signaling molecules associated with regulation of cytoskeleton organization and mechanotransduction, including Yap1, Sox9, Rho, RAC, and Wnt. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that SSPN overexpression rescues dystrophin deficiency partially through mechanotransduction signaling cascades mediated through components of the ECM and the cortical cytoskeleton.

Loss of sarcospan exacerbates pathology in mdx mice, but does not affect utrophin amelioration of disease.

The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) is a membrane adhesion complex that provides structural stability at the sarcolemma by linking the myocyte's internal cytoskeleton and external extracellular matrix. In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the absence of dystrophin leads to the loss of the DGC at the sarcolemma, resulting in sarcolemmal instability and progressive muscle damage. Utrophin (UTRN), an autosomal homolog of dystrophin, is upregulated in dystrophic muscle and partially compensates for the loss of dystrophin in muscle from patients with DMD. Here, we examine the interaction between Utr and sarcospan (SSPN), a small transmembrane protein that is a core component of both UTRN-glycoprotein complex (UGC) and DGC. We show that additional loss of SSPN causes an earlier onset of disease in dystrophin-deficient mdx mice by reducing the expression of the UGC at the sarcolemma. In order to further evaluate the role of SSPN in maintaining therapeutic levels of Utr at the sarcolemma, we tested the effect of Utr transgenic overexpression in mdx mice lacking SSPN (mdx:SSPN -/-:Utr-Tg). We found that overexpression of Utr restored SSPN to the sarcolemma in mdx muscle but that the ablation of SSPN in mdx muscle reduced Utr at the membrane. Nevertheless, Utr overexpression reduced central nucleation and improved grip strength in both lines. These findings demonstrate that high levels of Utr transgenic overexpression ameliorate the mdx phenotype independently of SSPN expression but that loss of SSPN may impair Utr-based mechanisms that rely on lower levels of Utr protein.

Type V Collagen in Scar Tissue Regulates the Size of Scar after Heart Injury.

Scar tissue size following myocardial infarction is an independent predictor of cardiovascular outcomes, yet little is known about factors regulating scar size. We demonstrate that collagen V, a minor constituent of heart scars, regulates the size of heart scars after ischemic injury. Depletion of collagen V led to a paradoxical increase in post-infarction scar size with worsening of heart function. A systems genetics approach across 100 in-bred strains of mice demonstrated that collagen V is a critical driver of postinjury heart function. We show that collagen V deficiency alters the mechanical properties of scar tissue, and altered reciprocal feedback between matrix and cells induces expression of mechanosensitive integrins that drive fibroblast activation and increase scar size. Cilengitide, an inhibitor of specific integrins, rescues the phenotype of increased post-injury scarring in collagen-V-deficient mice. These observations demonstrate that collagen V regulates scar size in an integrin-dependent manner.

Distinct mechanical properties in homologous spectrin-like repeats of utrophin.

Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) lack the protein dystrophin, which is a critical molecular component of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC). Dystrophin is hypothesized to function as a molecular shock absorber that mechanically stabilizes the sarcolemma of striated muscle through interaction with the cortical actin cytoskeleton via its N-terminal half and with the transmembrane protein ß-dystroglycan via its C-terminal region. Utrophin is a fetal homologue of dystrophin that can subserve many dystrophin functions and is therefore under active investigation as a dystrophin replacement therapy for DMD. Here, we report the first mechanical characterization of utrophin using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Our data indicate that the mechanical properties of spectrin-like repeats in utrophin are more in line with the PEVK and Ig-like repeats of titin rather than those reported for repeats in spectrin or dystrophin. Moreover, we measured markedly different unfolding characteristics for spectrin repeats within the N-terminal actin-binding half of utrophin compared to those in the C-terminal dystroglycan-binding half, even though they exhibit identical thermal denaturation profiles. Our results demonstrate dramatic differences in the mechanical properties of structurally homologous utrophin constructs and suggest that utrophin may function as a stiff elastic element in series with titin at the myotendinous junction.

Mouse models of two missense mutations in actin-binding domain 1 of dystrophin associated with Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophy.

Missense mutations in the dystrophin protein can cause Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) or Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) through an undefined pathomechanism. In vitro studies suggest that missense mutations in the N-terminal actin-binding domain (ABD1) cause protein instability, and cultured myoblast studies reveal decreased expression levels that can be restored to wild-type with proteasome inhibitors. To further elucidate the pathophysiology of missense dystrophin in vivo, we generated two transgenic mdx mouse lines expressing L54R or L172H mutant dystrophin, which correspond to missense mutations identified in human patients with DMD or BMD, respectively. Our biochemical, histologic and physiologic analysis of the L54R and L172H mice show decreased levels of dystrophin which are proportional to the phenotypic severity. Proteasome inhibitors were ineffective in both the L54R and L172H mice, yet mice homozygous for the L172H transgene were able to express even higher levels of dystrophin which caused further improvements in muscle histology and physiology. Given that missense dystrophin is likely being degraded by the proteasome but whole body proteasome inhibition was not possible, we screened for ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes involved in targeting dystrophin to the proteasome. A myoblast cell line expressing L54R mutant dystrophin was screened with an siRNA library targeting E1, E2 and E3 ligases which identified Amn1, FBXO33, Zfand5 and Trim75. Our study establishes new mouse models of dystrophinopathy and identifies candidate E3 ligases that may specifically regulate dystrophin protein turnover in vivo.

In vitro stability of therapeutically relevant, internally truncated dystrophins.

BACKGROUND: The X-linked recessive disease Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the protein dystrophin. Despite its large size, dystrophin is a highly stable protein, demonstrating cooperative unfolding during thermal denaturation as monitored by circular dichroism spectroscopy. In contrast, internal sequence deletions have been associated with a loss of the cooperative unfolding and cause in vitro protein aggregation. Several emerging therapy options for DMD utilize internally deleted micro-dystrophins and multi-exon-skipped dystrophins that produce partially functional proteins, but the stability of such internally truncated proteins has not been investigated. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed the in vitro stability of human dystrophin constructs skipped around exon 45 or exon 51, several dystrophin gene therapy constructs, as well as human full-length and micro-utrophin. Constructs were expressed in insect cells using the baculovirus system, purified by affinity chromatography, and analyzed by high-speed sedimentation, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and differential scanning fluorimetry. RESULTS: Our results reveal that not all gene therapy constructs display stabilities consistent with full-length human dystrophin. However, all dystrophins skipped in-frame around exon 45 or exon 51 show stability profiles congruent with intact human dystrophin. Similar to previous studies of mouse proteins, full-length human utrophin also displays stability similar to human dystrophin and does not appear to be affected by a large internal deletion. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the in vitro stability of human dystrophin is less sensitive to smaller deletions at natural exon boundaries than larger, more complex deletions present in some gene therapy constructs.