Assessing the effectiveness and implementation of a universal classroom-based set of educator practices to improve preschool children's social-emotional outcomes: Protocol for a cluster randomized controlled type 2 hybrid trial in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: Providing high-quality early childhood care and education is understood as key to maximizing children's potential to succeed later in life, as it stimulates young children's development of skills and competencies needed to promote optimal outcomes and success later in life. Despite the government's efforts to support the early childhood sector, educators in Singapore continue to report difficulties in implementing practices in classrooms that promote children's social, emotional, and cognitive development. To enhance educators' skills in these domains, we developed the Enhancing And Supporting Early development to better children's Lives (EASEL) Approach, a set of universal, educator-delivered practices for use with 3-6-year-old children in early childhood settings to improve social, emotional, behavioral, and executive functioning (SEB+EF) outcomes. METHODS: This study will evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of the EASEL Approach in improving early childhood educators' teaching practices and, in turn, children's SEB+EF outcomes. We will conduct a cluster randomized controlled trial with a type 2 hybrid effectiveness-implementation study in 16 childcare centers. The EPIS (Explore, Prepare, Implement, Sustain) Framework will be used to inform the implementation of the EASEL Approach. Implementation strategies include training, educator self-assessments, practice-based coaching, and data monitoring. Our primary outcome is educators' teaching practices. Secondary outcomes include educators' adoption of the EASEL Approach in everyday practice, the acceptability and feasibility of the EASEL Approach, and children's SEB+EF outcomes. Quantitative and qualitative data will be collected at baseline, six months, and after implementation. CONCLUSION: Findings from this study will provide significant evidence on the effectiveness of the EASEL Approach in improving educators' teaching practices and its impact on children's SEB+EF outcomes and the implementation of the EASEL Approach in early childhood classrooms in Singapore. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was prospectively registered on ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT05445947 on 6th July 2022.

"It Will Lead You to Make Better Decisions about Your Health"-A Focus Group and Survey Study on Women's Attitudes towards Risk-Based Breast Cancer Screening and Personalised Risk Assessments.

Singapore launched a population-based organised mammography screening (MAM) programme in 2002. However, uptake is low. A better understanding of breast cancer (BC) risk factors has generated interest in shifting from a one-size-fits-all to a risk-based screening approach. However, public acceptability of the change is lacking. Focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted with 54 women (median age 37.5 years) with no BC history. Eight online sessions were transcribed, coded, and thematically analysed. Additionally, we surveyed 993 participants in a risk-based MAM study on how they felt in anticipation of receiving their risk profiles. Attitudes towards MAM (e.g., fear, low perceived risk) have remained unchanged for ~25 years. However, FGD participants reported that they would be more likely to attend routine mammography after having their BC risks assessed, despite uncertainty and concerns about risk-based screening. This insight was reinforced by the survey participants reporting more positive than negative feelings before receiving their risk reports. There is enthusiasm in knowing personal disease risk but concerns about the level of support for individuals learning they are at higher risk for breast cancer. Our results support the empowering of Singaporean women with personal health information to improve MAM uptake.

Investigation of metabolomic biomarkers for childhood executive function and the role of genetic and dietary factors: The GUSTO cohort.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have investigated molecular biomarkers of specific executive function (EF) skills in children. We aimed to characterise the prospective associations between metabolome and multiple domains of EF using a bidirectional design. METHODS: This study was conducted within a longitudinal birth cohort, the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO). Circulating levels of 165 metabolites were quantified using a nuclear magnetic resonance based metabolomics platform (n = 457 (∼6yrs) and n = 524 (∼8yrs)). Parent-reported EF was available for 495 children (∼7yrs). Multivariate linear regression was used to assess the metabolite-EF relationships. We examined the role of body composition, dietary factors, and genetics in the metabolite-EF associations. FINDINGS: Higher leucine level (∼6yrs) was associated with poorer EF (∼7yrs, Initiate (P = 0.003) and Working Memory (P = 0.004)). EF (∼7yrs) was not associated with leucine (∼8yrs). Importantly, we found weak evidence for associations of dietary factors (∼5yrs) with leucine (∼6yrs) and EF (∼7yrs). Each copy of C allele in rs1260326 (a leucine-related polymorphism) was associated with higher leucine level and poorer Initiate and Working Memory (P < 0.05). Amongst those with less strongly genetically influenced leucine, inverse association between leucine and cognitive regulation were weaker among those with higher BMI. INTERPRETATION: The observed association between higher leucine level and poorer EF may be determined by genetics and may not be easily amenable to dietary interventions. Further research is needed for validation and to understand mechanisms. FUNDING: Singapore National Research Foundation and Agency for Science, Technology and Research.

Texture-based differences in eating rate influence energy intake for minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.

BACKGROUND: Consumption of ultra-processed foods has been linked with higher energy intakes. Food texture is known to influence eating rate (ER) and energy intake to satiation, yet it remains unclear whether food texture influences energy intakes from minimally processed and ultra-processed meals. OBJECTIVES: We examined the independent and combined effects of food texture and degree of processing on ad libitum food intake. We also investigated whether differences in energy intake during lunch influenced postmeal feelings of satiety and later food intake. METHODS: In this crossover study, 50 healthy-weight participants [n = 50 (24 men); mean ± SD age: 24.4 ± 3.1 y; BMI: 21.3 ± 1.9 kg/m2] consumed 4 ad libitum lunch meals consisting of "soft minimally processed," "hard minimally processed," "soft ultra-processed," and "hard ultra-processed" components. Meals were matched for total energy served, with some variation in meal energy density (±0.20 kcal/g). Ad libitum food intake (kcal and g) was measured and ER derived using behavioral coding of videos. Subsequent food intake was self-reported by food diary. RESULTS: There was a main effect of food texture on intake, whereby "hard minimally processed" and "hard ultra-processed" meals were consumed slower overall, produced a 21% and 26% reduction in food weight (g) and energy (kcal) consumed, respectively. Intakes were higher for "soft ultra-processed" and "soft minimally processed" meals (P < 0.001), after correcting for meal pleasantness. The effect of texture on food weight consumed was not influenced by processing levels (weight of food: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.376), but the effect of food texture on energy intake was (energy consumed: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.015). The least energy was consumed from the "hard minimally processed" meal (482.9 kcal; 95% CI: 431.9, 531.0 kcal) and the most from the "soft ultra-processed" meal (789.4 kcal; 95% CI: 725.9, 852.8 kcal; Δ=↓∼300 kcal). Energy intake was lowest when harder texture was combined with the "minimally processed" meals. Total energy intake across the day varied directly with energy intakes of the test meals (Δ15%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that food texture-based differences in ER and meal energy density contribute to observed differences in energy intake between minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04589221.

Evaluation of a child food reward task and its association with maternal feeding practices.

Food reward is defined as the momentary value of a food to the individual at the time of ingestion and is characterised by two psychological processes-"liking" and "wanting". We aimed to validate an age-appropriate food reward task to quantify implicit wanting of children from the GUSTO cohort (n = 430). At age 5 years, child appetitive traits and maternal feeding practices were reported by mothers via questionnaires. At age 6, a write-for-food task based on the child's preference for food or toy rewards was undertaken in laboratory conditions. Child BMI and skinfold measurements were taken at age 7. Convergent validity of the food reward task was assessed by associating with child appetitive traits, where enjoyment of food/food responsiveness (OR: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.06, 2.15) and emotional overeating (OR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.09, 2.48) were positively associated with high food reward in children. Criterion validity was tested by associating with child BMI, however no significant relationships were observed. Multivariable logistic regression analysis with maternal feeding practices revealed that children whose mother tend to restrict unhealthy food (OR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.82) and girls whose mothers taught them about nutrition (OR: 2.09; 95% CI: 1.19, 3.67) were more likely to have high food reward. No further significant associations were observed between food reward, other appetitive traits and feeding practices. Despite the lack of association with child weight status, this study demonstrated the value of the write-for-food task to assess food reward in children and presented sex-specific associations with maternal feeding practices.

The impact of feeding experiences during infancy on later child eating behaviours.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Individual differences in appetite and eating behaviours appear early in infancy. This review synthesizes recent research investigating the impact of feeding experiences during infancy on later appetite and energy intake regulation, and appraises the consistency and longevity of any effects. RECENT FINDINGS: Three themes of early feeding experiences were identified; breastfeeding, infants' first foods and caregivers' feeding practices. Recent findings suggest that breastfeeding alone is unlikely to promote better regulation of food intake later in childhood. It remains unclear whether the method of first food introduction (e.g., baby-led weaning vs traditional spoon feeding), or types of food introduced (e.g. ultra-processed foods), affect later child eating self-regulation. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on receiving guidance for responsive feeding showed some benefits; lower child body mass index z-scores in toddlerhood, parents reported less likelihood to pressure their child to eat or use food as a reward and lower emotional eating in the child. SUMMARY: There is little consistent new evidence for the lasting impact of any one specific infant feeding experience on later eating self-regulation. More RCTs using observed and measured behaviours, with longer follow-ups of children's eating behaviours, and those conducted across different populations are warranted.

Is breastfeeding associated with later child eating behaviours?

Individual differences in children's eating behaviours emerge early. We examined the relationship between breastfeeding exposure and subsequent eating behaviours among children from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) cohort. Children (n = 970) were grouped according to their breastfeeding exposure: high (full breastfeeding ≥ 4 months with continued breastfeeding ≥ 6 months), low (any breastfeeding < 3 months or no breastfeeding) and intermediate (between low and high breastfeeding categories). Aspects of eating behaviour from ages 15 months to 6 years were captured using a combination of maternal reports (Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire; Infant Feeding Questionnaire; Preschooler Feeding Questionnaire) and laboratory-based measures of meal size, oral processing behaviours (e.g. average eating speed and bite size) and tendency to eat in the absence of hunger. Most children had low (44%) or intermediate (44%) breastfeeding exposure; only 12% had high exposure. After adjusting for confounders, multivariable linear regression analyses indicated the high (but not intermediate) breastfeeding group was associated with significantly lower reported food fussiness at 3 years compared to low breastfeeding group (-0.38 [-0.70, -0.06]), with similar but non-significant trends observed at 6 years (-0.27 [-0.66, 0.11]). At 3 years, mothers in the high breastfeeding group also reported the least difficulty in child feeding compared to low breastfeeding group (-0.22 [-0.43, -0.01]). However, high breastfeeding was not associated with any other maternal-reports of child feeding or eating behaviours, and no significant associations were observed between breastfeeding exposure and any of the laboratory measures of eating behaviour at any of the time points. These results do not strongly support the view that increased breastfeeding exposure alone has lasting and consistent associations with eating behaviours in early childhood.

Eating behaviors moderate the associations between risk factors in the first 1000 days and adiposity outcomes at 6 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Several risk factors in the first 1000 d are linked with increased obesity risk in later childhood. The role of potentially modifiable eating behaviors in this association is unclear. OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether the association between cumulated risk factors in the first 1000 d and adiposity at 6 y is moderated by eating behaviors. METHODS: Participants were 302 children from the GUSTO (Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes) cohort. Risk factors included maternal prepregnancy and paternal overweight, excessive gestational weight gain, raised fasting plasma glucose during pregnancy, short breastfeeding duration, and early introduction of solid foods. Composite risk scores reflecting the prevalence and the importance of the risk factors present were computed. Adiposity outcomes were child BMI and sum of skinfolds (SSF), and candidate eating behavior moderators were portion size, eating rate, and energy intake during lunch and in an eating in the absence of hunger task. RESULTS: Higher composite risk score predicted higher BMI z scores (B = 0.08; 95% CI: 0.04, 0.13) and larger SSF (0.70 mm; 0.23, 1.18 mm), and was associated with larger self-served food portions (5.03 kcal; 0.47, 9.60 kcal), faster eating rates (0.40 g/min; 0.21, 0.59 g/min), and larger lunch intakes (7.05 kcal; 3.37, 10.74 kcal). Importantly, the association between composite risk score and adiposity was moderated by eating behaviors. The composite risk score was unrelated to SSF in children who selected smaller food portions, ate slower, and consumed less energy, but was positively associated with SSF among children who selected larger food portions, ate faster, and consumed more energy (eating behavior × risk score interactions: P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The association between risk factors in the first 1000 d and adiposity at 6 y varies by eating behaviors, highlighting modifiable behavioral targets for interventions.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01174875.

Sugars and sweeteners: science, innovations, and consumer guidance for Asia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Rising obesity in Southeast Asia, one consequence of economic growth, has been linked to a rising consumption of energy from added sugars. This symposium, organized by ILSI Southeast Asia, explored regional issues related to dietary sugars and health and identified ways in which these issues could be addressed by regional regulatory agencies, food producers, and the consumer. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: Papers on the following topics were presented: 1) current scientific evidence on the effects of sugars and non-caloric sweeteners on body weight, health, and eating behaviors; 2) innovations by food producers to reduce sugar consumption in the region; 3) regional dietary surveillance of sugar consumption and suggestions for consumer guidance. A panel discussion explored effective approaches to promote healthy eating in the region. RESULTS: Excessive consumption of energy in the form of added sugars can have adverse consequences on diet quality, lipid profiles, and health. There is a need for better surveillance of total and added sugars intakes in selected Southeast Asian countries. Among feasible alternatives to corn sweeteners (high fructose corn syrup) and cane sugar are indigenous sweeteners with low glycemic index (e.g., coconut sap sugar). Their health benefits should be examined and regional sugar consumption tracked in detail. Product reformulation to develop palatable lower calorie alternatives that are accepted by consumers continues to be a challenge for industry and regulatory agencies. CONCLUSIONS: Public-private collaborations to develop healthy products and effective communication strategies can facilitate consumer acceptance and adoption of healthier foods.

Validation of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire in 5 and 6 Year-Old Children: The GUSTO Cohort Study.

Revised subscales of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) have been proposed to be more appropriate for assessing appetitive traits in Singaporean 3 year-olds, but the CEBQ has not yet been validated in older children in this population. The current study aimed to validate the CEBQ at ages 5 (n = 653) and 6 (n = 449) in the ethnically diverse GUSTO cohort. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) examined whether the established eight-factor model of the CEBQ was supported in this sample. Overall, the CFA showed a poor model fit at both ages 5 and 6. At both ages 5 and 6, an exploratory factor analysis revealed a six-factor structure: food fussiness, enjoyment of food, slowness in eating, emotional undereating, emotional overeating and desire to drink. Cronbach's alpha estimates ranged from 0.70 to 0.85 for all subscales. Criterion validity was tested by correlating subscales with the weight status of 6 years of age. At age 5 and 6, lower scores of slowness of eating while higher scores of enjoyment of food was associated with child overweight. At age 6, higher scores of desire to drink was also associated child overweight. In conclusion, a revised six factor-structure of the CEBQ at ages 5 and 6 were more appropriate for examining appetitive traits in this sample.

Associations between inhibitory control, eating behaviours and adiposity in 6-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: Lower inhibitory control has been associated with obesity. One prediction is that lower inhibitory control underlies eating behaviours that promote increased energy intakes. This study examined the relationships between children's inhibitory control measured using the Stop Signal Task (SST), body composition and eating behaviours, which included self-served portion size, number of servings, eating rate, and energy intake at lunch and in an eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) task. METHODS: The sample included 255 6-year-old children from an Asian cohort. Stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) was used as an index of inhibitory control. Children participated in a recorded self-served lunchtime meal, followed by the EAH task where they were exposed to energy-dense snacks. Behavioural coding of oral processing was used to estimate eating rates (g/min). BMI, waist circumference and skinfolds were used as indices of adiposity. RESULTS: Children with lower inhibitory control tended to self-serve larger food portions (p = 0.054), had multiple food servings (p = 0.006) and significantly faster eating rates (p = 0.041). Inhibitory control did not predict energy intake at lunch (p = 0.17) or during the EAH task (p = 0.45), and was unrelated to measures of adiposity (p > 0.32). Twenty percent of the children in the sample had problems focusing on the SST and were described as 'restless'. Post-hoc analysis revealed that these children had lower inhibitory control (p < 0.001) and consumed more energy during the EAH task (p = 0.01), but did not differ in any other key outcomes from the rest of the sample (p > 0.1). CONCLUSIONS: Children with lower inhibitory control showed a trend to select larger food portions, had multiple food servings and faster eating rates, but were equally as responsive to snacks served in the absence of hunger as children with better inhibitory control. Inhibitory control may impact a number of eating behaviours, not limited to energy-dense snacks.

Children's Eating Behaviors and Energy Intake: Overlapping Influences and Opportunities for Intervention.

The transition from risk factors in the first 1,000 days to childhood obesity occurs largely through the development of maladaptive eating behaviors that emerge early, remain stable, and support greater energy intake over time. We have examined the association between eating behaviors, energy intake, and body composition at 4.5 and 6 years of age among children from the GUSTO (Growing Up in Singapore towards Healthy Outcomes) cohort. Our findings demonstrate that when children select larger portions, eat at a faster rate, and continue to eat when sated, they consume more energy than children who do not exhibit these behaviors. We have shown that these behaviors are stable over time and independently predict higher adiposity and BMIz scores at the later time point. We observed that faster eating and greater intakes were associated with parent report measures of appetitive traits, such as the child's satiety responsiveness, food fussiness, and enjoyment of food. Importantly, faster eating rates mediated the link between these appetitive traits and child energy intakes. In addition, within-meal parental feeding practices were linked to a faster eating rate, higher energy intakes, and higher BMIz scores in some children, suggesting that parents are aware of these eating behaviors and likely adapt their feeding practices to influence their child's energy intake. These findings emphasize the need to consider the interaction and cumulative impact of these eating behaviors and parental feeding practices on children's energy intake, and, consequently, the need to develop holistic intervention approaches that target the behaviors that contribute most to a child's risk of developing overweight and obesity.

Prospective associations between parental feeding practices and children's oral processing behaviours.

Previous research demonstrated that faster eating rates are linked with increased intake of energy during a meal. Here, we examined whether within-meal parental feeding practices show cross-sectional and prospective associations with children's oral processing behaviours and whether the previously demonstrated association between faster eating rates and higher energy intakes varies by parental feeding practices. A subset (n = 155) of children and their mothers from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort participated in an ad libitum meal at age 4.5 years. Children's oral processing behaviours (eating rate, bite size, chews per gram, oral exposure time, and meal duration) and parental feeding practices (autonomy-supporting and coercive prompts, restrictions, hurrying, and slowing) were recorded during the meal. Subsequently, 94 of the children participated in a follow-up meal without their mothers at age 6 years. Parental feeding practices were not consistently associated with child oral processing behaviours overall. However, exploratory post hoc analyses revealed some sex differences. The mothers of girls with faster eating rates, larger bite sizes, and fewer chews were more likely to use hurrying, slowing, and restrictions, but similar associations were not observed among boys. Children who had the most problematic eating style and were eating fast and for long experienced more restrictions, instructions to slow down, and prompts. Faster eating rates were linked with the highest energy intakes if children were additionally prompted to eat. Prospective analyses showed that children who were more often prompted using coercive techniques and less frequently hurried at age 4.5 years had faster eating rates at 6 years and a larger increase in eating rates between ages 4.5 and 6 years but did not consume more energy. Although the direction of these associations cannot be assumed, these exploratory analyses suggest sex differences in the associations between feeding practices and oral processing behaviours and highlight the potential role of parents in the development of children's oral processing behaviours.

Using Sensory Cues to Optimise the Satiety Value of a Reduced-Calorie Product Labelled 'Healthier Choice'.

Reformulation strategies to reduce the energy density of commonly consumed foods and beverages are intended to support weight management, but expectations generated by labelling these as 'healthier' alternatives can have unintended effects on the product's sensory evaluations and consumption behaviours. We compared the impact of four different strategies for presenting a lower-calorie beverage to consumers on product perceptions, short-term appetite and energy intake. Participants (N = 112) consumed higher- (211 kcal/portion) and lower-calorie (98 kcal/portion) fixed-portion soymilks in the morning across two test days, with the lower-calorie version presented in one of four contexts varying in label information and sensory quality: (1) sensory-matched/unlabelled, (2) sensory-matched/labelled, (3) sensory-reduced (less sweet and creamy)/labelled, and (4) sensory-enhanced (sweeter and creamier)/labelled. The label was Singapore's Healthier Choice Symbol, which also highlighted that the soymilk was lower calorie. Changes in reported appetite, ad libitum lunch intake, and self-reported intake for the rest of the text day were recorded. Results indicated that total energy intake was consistently lower on the days the lower calorie beverages were consumed, regardless of how they were presented. However, the 'healthier choice' label increased hunger prior to lunch and reduced the soymilks' perceived thickness and sweetness compared to the same unlabelled version. Increasing the product's sensory intensity successfully maintained liking, experienced sensory quality and appetite. Results suggest that food companies wanting to explicitly label product reformulations could combine messages of 'lower calorie' and 'healthier choice' with appropriate taste and texture enhancements to maintain acceptance and avoid negative effects on appetite.

Eating in the absence of hunger: Stability over time and associations with eating behaviours and body composition in children.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) has been linked to obesity in adults and children. This study examined the stability of EAH in children between 4.5 and 6 years old, and associations with energy intake and portion selection, as well as cross-sectional and prospective associations with body composition. METHODS: The participants were 158 boys and girls from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort. At ages 4.5 and 6 years old children were provided lunch ad libitum, and immediately afterwards were exposed to palatable snacks to measure energy intake in the absence of hunger. At age 6 children completed an additional computer-based task to measure ideal portion size, where they selected pictures of the portions they would like to eat across eight foods. Measures of anthropometry (height/weight/skinfolds) were collected at both ages. RESULTS: Children who consumed energy during the EAH task at age 4.5 years were 3 times more likely to also do so at age 6 years. Children with high EAH intakes at age 4.5 years had high EAH intakes at age 6, highlighting stability of this behaviour over time. Energy consumed at lunch was unrelated to energy consumed during the EAH task, but children who ate in the absence of hunger cumulatively consumed more energy over lunch and the EAH task. Children who showed EAH tended to select larger ideal portions of foods during the computer task. EAH was not associated with measures of body composition. CONCLUSIONS: EAH is a stable behavioural risk factor for increased energy intake, but was not associated with body composition in this cohort. The majority of children ate in the absence of hunger, suggesting that interventions aimed at reducing responsiveness to external food cues could help to reduce energy intakes. Trial Registry Number: NCT01174875; https://clinicaltrials.gov/.

Oral processing behaviours that promote children's energy intake are associated with parent-reported appetitive traits: Results from the GUSTO cohort.

Oral processing behaviours associated with faster eating rates have been consistently linked to increased energy intakes, but little is known about their links to children's appetitive traits. This study used the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) to explore cross-sectional and prospective associations between parent-reported appetitive traits and observed oral processing behaviours. Participants were 195 children from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort, who participated in a video-recorded ad libitum lunch at 4.5 (Time 1) and 6 years (Time 2). Their mothers completed the CEBQ around the same time points. Children's bites, chews and swallows were coded, and used to calculate their eating rate, bite size, chews per bite, chew rate, oral exposure time and oral exposure per bite. At Time 1, children with higher scores in slowness in eating had lower eating and chew rates. At Time 2, higher scores for food enjoyment and lower for satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating, and food fussiness were linked with higher eating rates and greater energy intakes (r > 0.16, p < 0.05). Post-hoc analyses revealed that these associations were moderated by BMI and only present among children with higher BMI. Faster eating rates mediated the associations between greater food enjoyment, lower slowness in eating, lower food fussiness and higher intakes of energy. Children with higher slowness in eating scores had lower increases in eating rates over time, and children with higher BMI who had greater food enjoyment and food responsiveness scores had greater increases in eating rates over time. The findings suggest that oral processing behaviours linked with increased obesity risk may be underpinned by appetitive traits and may be one of the behavioural pathways through which these appetitive traits influence energy intakes.

Expectations About Satiety and Thirst Are Modified by Acute Motivational State.

Prior research has shown that consumers have clear and measurable expectations about the likely effects of food and drink items on their appetite and thirst, which are acquired with experience and influenced by a product's taste and texture. What is unclear is whether expression of these expectations also varies with current appetitive state. It is possible that current appetite could increase or decrease the relevance of these expectations for future food choice and magnify a product's expected impact on appetite. To test this, we contrasted expectations about satiety and thirst for four products consumed 2 h after an appetite manipulation at breakfast, achieved through ad libitum access to low-energy drinks only (hunger condition), cereal only but no drinks (thirst condition) or both foods and drinks (sated condition). The test products were two soups and two drinks, with a thicker and thinner version of each product type to act as positive control to ensure sensitivity in detecting differences in expectations. For satiety, the predicted differences between products were seen: soups and thicker products were expected to be more filling and to suppress subsequent hunger more than drinks and thinner products, but these differences were more pronounced in the hunger than thirsty or sated conditions. Being thirsty also enhanced expectations of how much drinks would appease immediate thirst. Overall the data show that expectations were adjusted subtly by a person's current appetitive state, suggesting that we have mechanisms that highlight the most important features of a product at the time when it may be most beneficial to the consumer.

Consistency of Eating Rate, Oral Processing Behaviours and Energy Intake across Meals.

Faster eating has been identified as a risk factor for obesity and the current study tested whether eating rate is consistent within an individual and linked to energy intake across multiple meals. Measures of ad libitum intake, eating rate, and oral processing at the same or similar test meal were recorded on four non-consecutive days for 146 participants (117 male, 29 female) recruited across four separate studies. All the meals were video recorded, and oral processing behaviours were derived through behavioural coding. Eating behaviours showed good to excellent consistency across the meals (intra-class correlation coefficients > 0.76, p < 0.001) and participants who ate faster took larger bites (ß ≥ 0.39, p < 0.001) and consistently consumed more energy, independent of meal palatability, sex, body composition and reported appetite (ß ≥ 0.17, p ≤ 0.025). Importantly, eating faster at one meal predicted faster eating and increased energy intake at subsequent meals (ß > 0.20, p < 0.05). Faster eating is relatively consistent within individuals and is predictive of faster eating and increased energy intake at subsequent similar meals consumed in a laboratory context, independent of individual differences in body composition.

Preschool children's sensitivity to teacher-served portion size is linked to age related differences in leftovers.

A strong predictor of children's food intake at a meal is the amount they are served, and with a high percentage children attending preschool, there is a need to consider the relationship between portion size and intake in this context. In a two-part repeated measures study we investigated whether the portions teachers serve to children i) differ from those children would serve themselves and ii) impact food intake at a local preschool in Singapore. Part 1 (n = 37, 20 boys, 3.0-6.8 years) compared the quantity of food served, consumed and leftover across three serving methods: 'regular' teacher-serving; child self-served portions; and a deliberately large portion served by the teacher (150% of each child's average previous gram intake). Part 2 (n = 44, 23 boys, 2.4-6.2 years old) consisted of three additional observations of school-based servings outside of the experimental manipulation and enhance external validity of the study findings. Results indicated that serving size and intake was similar when the children and teachers served their 'regular' portions, but children consumed most overall when the teacher served the larger 150% portion. This was dependent on the child's age, with the oldest children being most responsive to the large portions while the youngest children tended to serve and consume a similar weight of food, regardless of the serving method. Though the younger children were generally served less than the older children, they consistently had more leftovers across all of the study observations. These data suggest that younger preschool children moderated food intake by leaving food in their bowl, and emphasise the unique influence of caregivers over children's eating behaviours outside of the home environment.

Texture-Based Differences in Eating Rate Reduce the Impact of Increased Energy Density and Large Portions on Meal Size in Adults.

Background: Large portions and high dietary energy density promote overconsumption at meal times. This could be reduced by eating slowly.Objective: Two studies investigated whether texture-based reductions in eating rate and oral processing moderate consumption at breakfast in combination with variations in energy density and portion size.Methods: Adults attended 4 breakfast sessions (2 × 2 repeated-measures design) to consume rice porridge, combining a 45% reduction in eating rate [thin porridge (140 g/min) compared with thick porridge (77 g/min)] with a 77% increase in energy density (0.57 compared with 1.01 kcal/g) in study 1 [n = 61; aged 21-48 y; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2): 16-29] and a 50% increase in portion size (100% compared with 150%) in study 2 (n = 53; aged 21-42 y; BMI: 16-29). Oral processing behaviors were coded by using webcams. Porridge intake was measured alongside changes in rated appetite.Results: Increases in energy density and portion size led to increases of 80% and 13% in energy intake at breakfast, respectively (P < 0.001), but only portion size increased the weight of food consumed (13%). The thicker porridges were consumed at a slower rate and led to 11-13% reductions in food weight and energy intake compared with the thin versions (P < 0.001). Combined, the least energy was consumed when the thick "slow" porridge was served with a lower energy density or smaller portion (P < 0.05). Although intake was reduced for the thick porridges, they were expected to be more filling than the thin versions and experienced as equally satiating postconsumption.Conclusions: Adults eat in response to external features of the food environment. An opportunity exists to use a combination of energy-density dilution, smaller portions, and natural variations in food texture to design meals that promote reductions in energy intake while maintaining satiety.