Increasing springtime ozone mixing ratios in the free troposphere over western North America.

In the lowermost layer of the atmosphere-the troposphere-ozone is an important source of the hydroxyl radical, an oxidant that breaks down most pollutants and some greenhouse gases. High concentrations of tropospheric ozone are toxic, however, and have a detrimental effect on human health and ecosystem productivity. Moreover, tropospheric ozone itself acts as an effective greenhouse gas. Much of the present tropospheric ozone burden is a consequence of anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursors resulting in widespread increases in ozone concentrations since the late 1800s. At present, east Asia has the fastest-growing ozone precursor emissions. Much of the springtime east Asian pollution is exported eastwards towards western North America. Despite evidence that the exported Asian pollution produces ozone, no previous study has found a significant increase in free tropospheric ozone concentrations above the western USA since measurements began in the late 1970s. Here we compile springtime ozone measurements from many different platforms across western North America. We show a strong increase in springtime ozone mixing ratios during 1995-2008 and we have some additional evidence that a similar rate of increase in ozone mixing ratio has occurred since 1984. We find that the rate of increase in ozone mixing ratio is greatest when measurements are more heavily influenced by direct transport from Asia. Our result agrees with previous modelling studies, which indicate that global ozone concentrations should be increasing during the early part of the twenty-first century as a result of increasing precursor emissions, especially at northern mid-latitudes, with western North America being particularly sensitive to rising Asian emissions. We suggest that the observed increase in springtime background ozone mixing ratio may hinder the USA's compliance with its ozone air quality standard.

LABVIEW graphical user interface for precision multichannel alignment of Raman lidar at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Table Mountain Facility.

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory operates lidar systems at Table Mountain Facility (TMF), California (34.4 degrees N, 117.7 degrees W) and Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii (19.5 degrees N, 155.6 degrees W) under the framework of the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change. To complement these systems a new Raman lidar has been developed at TMF with particular attention given to optimizing water vapor profile measurements up to the tropopause and lower stratosphere. The lidar has been designed for accuracies of 5% up to 12 km in the free troposphere and a detection capability of <5 ppmv. One important feature of the lidar is a precision alignment system using range resolved data from eight Licel transient recorders, allowing fully configurable alignment via a LABVIEW/C++ graphical user interface (GUI). This allows the lidar to be aligned on any channel while simultaneously displaying signals from other channels at configurable altitude/bin combinations. The general lidar instrumental setup and the details of the alignment control system, data acquisition, and GUI alignment software are described. Preliminary validation results using radiosonde and lidar intercomparisons are briefly presented.

Altitude range resolution of differential absorption lidar ozone profiles.

A method is described for the empirical determination of altitude range resolutions of ozone profiles obtained by differential absorption lidar (DIAL) analysis. The algorithm is independent of the implementation of the DIAL analysis, in particular of the type and order of the vertical smoothing filter applied. An interpretation of three definitions of altitude range resolution is given on the basis of simulations carried out with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ozone DIAL analysis program, SO3ANL. These definitions yield altitude range resolutions that differ by as much as a factor of 2. It is shown that the altitude resolution calculated by SO3ANL, and reported with all Jet Propulsion Laboratory lidar ozone profiles, corresponds closely to the full width at half-maximum of a retrieved ozone profile if an impulse function is used as the input ozone profile.

Ozone differential absorption lidar algorithm intercomparison.

An intercomparison of ozone differential absorption lidar algorithms was performed in 1996 within the framework of the Network for the Detection of Stratospheric Changes (NDSC) lidar working group. The objective of this research was mainly to test the differentiating techniques used by the various lidar teams involved in the NDSC for the calculation of the ozone number density from the lidar signals. The exercise consisted of processing synthetic lidar signals computed from simple Rayleigh scattering and three initial ozone profiles. Two of these profiles contained perturbations in the low and the high stratosphere to test the vertical resolution of the various algorithms. For the unperturbed profiles the results of the simulations show the correct behavior of the lidar processing methods in the low and the middle stratosphere with biases of less than 1% with respect to the initial profile to as high as 30 km in most cases. In the upper stratosphere, significant biases reaching 10% at 45 km for most of the algorithms are obtained. This bias is due to the decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio with altitude, which makes it necessary to increase the number of points of the derivative low-pass filter used for data processing. As a consequence the response of the various retrieval algorithms to perturbations in the ozone profile is much better in the lower stratosphere than in the higher range. These results show the necessity of limiting the vertical smoothing in the ozone lidar retrieval algorithm and questions the ability of current lidar systems to detect long-term ozone trends above 40 km. Otherwise the simulations show in general a correct estimation of the ozone profile random error and, as shown by the tests involving the perturbed ozone profiles, some inconsistency in the estimation of the vertical resolution among the lidar teams involved in this experiment.

Ray-tracing formulas for refraction and internal reflection in uniaxial crystals.

Formulas for the calculation of the direction cosines of refracted and internally reflected rays in anisotropic uniaxial crystals are presented. The method is based on a transformation to a nonorthonormal coordinate system in which the normal surface associated with the extraordinary ray is of spherical shape. A numerical example for the case of refraction and internal reflection in calcite is given.

Optical systems design for a stratospheric lidar system.

The optical systems for the transmitter and receiver of a high-power lidar for stratospheric measurements have been designed and analyzed. The system requirements and design results are presented and explained. An important and driving factor of this design was the requirement for a small image diameter in the plane of an optical chopper to allow the high-intensity lidar returns from the lower atmosphere to be shielded from the detection system. Some results relevant to the optical performance of the system are presented. The resulting system has been constructed and is now in operation at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, and is making regular measurements of stratospheric ozone, temperature, and aerosol profiles.

Ground-based laser DIAL system for long-term measurements of stratospheric ozone.

A ground-based differential absorption lidar system has been implemented to make long-term, precise measurements of stratospheric ozone concentration profiles from ~20 to 50 km altitude. This lidar is located at an elevation of 2300 m in the San Gabriel Mountains, Southern California, and has been in operation since Jan.1988. A high power (100-W) excimer laser system and a 90-cm diam telescope are used to achieve the desired performance levels. This paper describes the implementation of the system and its operation including the procedures for data analysis. Examples of ozone profiles measured, and intercomparisons with measurements made by other instruments, are presented which show that the lidar, in its present configuration, is capable of producing high quality ozone measurements from 20 km up to at least 45 km.

Doppler lidar atmospheric wind sensor: reevaluation of a 355-nm incoherent Doppler lidar.

We reevaluate the performance of an incoherent Doppler lidar system operating at 354.7 nm, based on recent but well-proven Nd:YAG laser technology and currently available optical sensors. For measurements in the lower troposphere, up to ~5 km altitude, and also in the Junge-layer of the lower stratosphere, a wind component accuracy of +/- 2 m/s and a vertical resolution of 1 km should be obtained with a single pulse from a 1-J laser, operating at Polar Platform altitudes (700-850 km) and high scan angles (55 degrees ). For wind measurements in the upper troposphere (above ~5 km altitude) and stratosphere (above and below the Junge layer) the concentration of scatterers is much lower and higher energies would be required to maintain +/-2m/s accuracy and 1 km vertical resolution, using single laser pulses. Except for the region in the vicinity of the tropopause (10 km altitude), a 5-J pulse would be appropriate to make measurements in these regions. The worst case is encountered near 10 km altitude, where we calculate that a 15-J pulse would be required. To reduce this energy requirement, we would propose to degrade the altitude resolution from 1 km to 2-3 km, and also to consider averaging multiple pulses. Degrading the vertical and horizontal resolution could provide an acceptable method of obtaining the required wind accuracy without the penalty of using a laser of higher output power. We believe that a Doppler lidar system, employing a near ultraviolet laser with a pulse energy of 5 J, could achieve the performance objectives required by the major potential users of a global space-borne wind observing system.

Measurement intercomparison of the JPL and GSFC stratospheric ozone lidar systems.

For approximately one month during October and November 1988 the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center mobile lidar system was brought to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Table Mountain Facility, to make side-byside measurements with the JPL lidar of stratospheric ozone concentration profiles. Measurements were made by both excimer laser DIAL systems on fifteen nights during this period. The results showed good agreement of the ozone profiles measured between 20- and 40-km altitude. This is the first (to the best of our knowledge) reported side-by-side measurement intercomparison of two stratospheric ozone lidar systems.

Lidar measurements of stratospheric ozone and intercomparisons and validation.

A ground-based, high power differential absorption lidar (DIAL) system has been implemented to make long term, precise measurements of stratospheric ozone concentration profiles from ~20- to 50-km altitude. This lidar is located at an elevation of 2300 m in the San Gabriel Mountains, Southern California, and has been in operation since January 1988. Evaluation of the results obtained from this system has been provided through an inter-comparison campaign, carried out during October/November 1988, and through long term comparison with SAGE II satellite measurements. This paper describes the implementation of the system and its operation, including the procedures for data analysis. Examples of ozone profiles measured and inter-comparisons with measurements made by other instruments are presented which show that the lidar is capable of producing high quality ozone measurements up to at least 45-km altitude.

Effects of hematoporphyrin derivative and photodynamic therapy on atherosclerotic rabbits.

This study was performed to demonstrate selective uptake of hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) within actively developing atheroma, to localize the site of uptake of HPD within the atheroma, and to determine the potential for photodynamic therapy (PDT) of atherosclerosis in the rabbit model. Fifteen rabbits were rendered atherosclerotic. Five rabbits received neither HPD nor PDT and 2 rabbits received HPD, 10 mg/kg intravenously, without subsequent irradiation. Eight other rabbits received 5 to 20 mg of HPD intravenously and subsequent intravascular 636-nm laser radiation to either the thoracic aorta or the aortic arch. A total of 32 to 288 J of laser energy was delivered through a 300-mu quartz fiber. All rabbits that received in vivo HPD had red fluorescence of their aortas when placed under ultraviolet light. The pattern of fluorescence corresponded precisely to the pattern of atheroma. In segments that received PDT, light microscopic examination revealed an accumulation of smooth muscle cells at the intimal surface. Fluorescence microscopy revealed a diminishing concentration gradient of HPD from intimal surface layers towards the media. Assessment of treated thoracic aortic segments revealed quantitative and qualitative differences compared with control segments. In the arch-treated segments, however, no changes were seen. It is concluded that HPD localizes within rabbit atheroma, can be detected by fluorescence and is deposited in a diminishing concentration gradient from lumen toward media. Irradiation with 636-nm light may induce qualitative and quantitative changes in atheroma.

Laser ablation of human atherosclerotic plaque without adjacent tissue injury.

Seventy samples of human cadaver atherosclerotic aorta were irradiated in vitro using a 308 nm xenon chloride excimer laser. Energy per pulse, pulse duration and frequency were varied. For comparison, 60 segments were also irradiated with an argon ion and an Nd:YAG (neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet) laser operated in the continuous mode. Tissue was fixed in formalin, sectioned and examined microscopically. The Nd:YAG and argon ion-irradiated tissue exhibited a central crater with irregular edges and concentric zones of thermal and blast injury. In contrast, the excimer laser-irradiated tissue had narrow deep incisions with minimal or no thermal injury. These preliminary experiments indicate that the excimer laser vaporizes tissue in a manner different from that of the continuous wave Nd:YAG or argon ion laser. The sharp incision margins and minimal damage to adjacent normal tissue suggest that the excimer laser is more desirable for general surgical and intravascular uses than are the conventionally used medical lasers.