Infant and preschool attachment, continuity and relationship to caregiving sensitivity: findings from a new population-based Australian cohort.

BACKGROUND: Here, we report new prevalence and temporal stability data for child attachment and parental caregiving behaviour, from infancy (1 year) to preschool (4 years). METHODS: Attachment (SSP) and caregiving data (MBQS) were from observations of parents and their infants and preschoolers, who represent the third generation of participants within an Australian longitudinal cohort. RESULTS: At 1 year (n = 314 dyads) and at 4 years (n = 368 dyads), proportions assessed secure were 59% and 71%, respectively. Proportions assessed avoidant were 15% and 11%; ambivalent 9% and 6%, and disorganised 17% and 12%, at 1 and 4 years. Continuity of attachment pattern was highest for the infant secure group. Of dyads initially classified disorganised in infancy, 36% remained so at the preschool assessment. Attachment and caregiving continuities across the infancy-preschool period were highest for the stable secure attachment group and lowest for the stable insecure attachment group. Loss of secure attachment to mother by age 4 years correlated with decreased maternal caregiving sensitivity, and acquisition of secure status by age 4 was associated with increased maternal sensitivity. We found no difference in caregiving sensitivity scores for mothers and fathers for female and male preschool children. CONCLUSIONS: The contemporary infant and preschool attachment proportions we report here closely mirror the patterns of those reported in prior decades, with an inclination towards secure base relationships. Our findings alert practitioners anew to the responsiveness of early attachment status to change in caregiving responsiveness and support ongoing investment in early identification of disorganised attachment.

Child-Reported Family Violence: A Systematic Review of Available Instruments.

The impact of family violence (FV) on children is a significant global public policy issue. Earliest identification of FV among children is critical for preventing escalating sequelae. While practitioners routinely ask adults about FV, there are relatively few measures that enable children to reliably self-report on their own safety. This review sought to systematically identify and appraise all available child self-report measures for screening and assessment of FV in both clinical and research settings. Database searching was conducted in January 2022. Articles were eligible for review if they included a validated child (5-18 years) self-report measure of FV (including victimization, perpetration, and/or exposure to inter-parental violence). Screening of an initial 4,714 records identified a total of 85 articles, representing 32 unique validated instruments. Results provide an up-to-date catalog of child self-report measures of FV, intended to benefit practitioners, services and researchers in selecting appropriate tools, and in understanding their suitability and limitations for different cohorts and practice goals. While just under half of the measures captured both exposure to inter-parental violence and direct victimization, none captured all three domains of exposure, victimization and perpetration together. Instruments with provision for input from multiple respondents (e.g., both child and parent report) and with assessment of contextual risk factors were few. Findings point to the need for developmentally appropriate, whole-of-family screening and assessment frameworks to support children in the early identification of family safety concerns.

Universal Digital Programs for Promoting Mental and Relational Health for Parents of Young Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Digital parenting programs aim to increase program access, improve psychosocial outcomes for parents and children, and support triage to targeted interventions where required. This meta-analysis assessed the efficacy of online parenting programs in improving parenting skills and capabilities, and by consequence, the mental health and well-being of parents and children, and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Studies were included if they were: (1) online, (2) self-delivered, (3) designed for universal general population prevention, (4) evaluated experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and (5) assessed parent and child emotional and/or relational health, from pregnancy to 5 years of age. A systematic search of electronic databases and grey literature identified 22 studies that met inclusion criteria, including 24 independent samples, with 5671 unique parents. Meta-analyses were conducted using random effects models and Cohen's d effects. Small-to-moderate improvements in parent depression, anxiety, self-efficacy, and social support were observed. No effects on parent stress, satisfaction, or parent-child relationship quality were observed. Meta-regression and sub-group analysis were conducted to identify sensitivity or moderation effects. Collectively, findings suggest any benefits of online parenting programs mostly occur at the time of the intervention, for parent mental health and well-being outcomes, and that enduring effects are unlikely. However, given the cost effectiveness and accessibility of online programs, further research into ways of sustaining effects on parenting outcomes is warranted. Furthermore, given the centrality of the parent-child bond to child development across the lifecourse, additional investment in new digitally facilitated approaches focusing on this bond are likewise warranted.PROSPERO registration CRD42021275647.

Continuities in maternal substance use from early adolescence to parenthood: findings from the intergenerational cohort consortium.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed the extent to which women's preconception binge drinking, tobacco use and cannabis use, reported prospectively in adolescence and young adulthood, predicted use of these substances during pregnancy and at 1 year postpartum. METHODS: Data were pooled from two intergenerational cohort studies: the Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 Study (395 mothers, 691 pregnancies) and the Victorian Intergenerational Health Cohort Study (398 mothers, 609 pregnancies). Alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use were assessed in adolescence (13-18 years), young adulthood (19-29 years) and at ages 29-35 years for those transitioning to parenthood. Exposures were weekly or more frequent preconception binge drinking (5 + drinks in one session), tobacco use and cannabis use. Outcomes were any alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use prior to awareness of the pregnancy, after awareness of pregnancy (up to and including the third trimester pregnancy) and at 1 year postpartum. RESULTS: Frequent preconception binge drinking, tobacco use and cannabis use across both adolescence and young adulthood were strong predictors of continued use post-conception, before and after awareness of the pregnancy and at 1 year postpartum. Substance use limited to young adulthood also predicted continued use post-conception. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent alcohol, tobacco use and cannabis use that starts in adolescence has a strong continuity into parenthood. Reducing substance use in the perinatal period requires action well before pregnancy, commencing in adolescence and continuing into the years before conception and throughout the perinatal period.

Practice, governance, and culture characteristics of lived experience organisations, and evidence of efficacy: A scoping review protocol.

BACKGROUND: Mental health policy and service design is increasingly recognizing the importance of the lived experience voice and its inclusion in all aspects of work. Effective inclusion requires a deeper understanding of how best to support lived experience workforce and community members to meaningfully participate in the system. OBJECTIVES: This scoping review aims to identify key features of organizational practice and governance that facilitate the safe inclusion of lived experience in decision-making and practice within mental health sector contexts. Specifically, the review focuses on mental health organizations devoted to lived experience advocacy or peer support or those in which lived experience membership (paid or voluntary) is central to advocacy and peer support operations. METHODS: This review protocol was prepared with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols and registered with the Open Science Framework. The review will be guided by the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology framework and is being conducted by a multidisciplinary team including lived experience research fellows. It will include published and grey literature, including government reports, organizational online documents, and theses. Included studies will be identified through comprehensive searches of five databases: PsycINFO (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), EMBASE (Ovid), MEDLINE (Ovid), and ProQuest Central. Studies published in English from 2000 onwards will be included. Data extraction will be guided by pre-determined extraction instruments. Results will be presented in a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews flow chart. Results will be presented in tabular form and narratively synthesized. The planned commencement and completion dates for this review were July 1, 2022 and April 1, 2023. DISCUSSION: It is anticipated that this scoping review will map the current evidence base underpinning organizational practices in which lived experience workers are involved, specifically in the mental health system. It will also inform future mental health policy and research. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registration: Open Science Framework (registered: July 26, 2022; registration DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/NB3S5).

Factor structure of the Mini-Maternal Behavior Q-Sort and associations with infant attachment: Informing precision in research and intervention.

We examined the factor structure of parental sensitivity to infants as assessed by the Mini-Maternal Behavior Q-Sort (Mini-MBQS), a 25-item short-form of the original 90-item MBQS. We aimed to: (1) identify latent factors of the Mini-MBQS; and (2) validate each factor by testing associations with infant attachment classifications. Data on parent-infant dyads (n = 313; 222 mothers with 281 children, 29 fathers with 32 children) were drawn from a three-generation Australian cohort study. Exploratory Factor Analysis and Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling examined the structure of the Mini-MBQS. Two latent Mini-MBQS factors were identified, requiring 8 of 25 original items: (1) Attention and Responsiveness and (2) Contingency in Interactions. Infants with insecure attachment classifications had parents with lower sensitivity across both factors relative to infants classified secure. In particular, infants with resistant attachment classifications had parents with notably low Contingency in Interactions scores. Infants with disorganised attachment classifications had parents with the lowest relative sensitivity across both factors, and in these dyads Attention and Responsiveness scores were especially low. Results provide an empirically derived factor structure for the Mini-MBQS. Two subscales, each with significant infant attachment associations, may improve precision in clinical intervention and research translation.

A culturally safe referral service for at-risk mothers and infants in marginalised, Aboriginal, and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse families.

This case study describes the development and implementation of a replicable early assessment and referral service for mothers experiencing minority group disadvantage and family violence in the perinatal period. The service aims to mitigate harms for at-risk mother-infant dyads that can lead to involvement in statutory child protection systems. In doing this, the service follows a culturally safe, restorative practice approach to supporting vulnerable families, which emphasises the relationship between worker and client to create a nurturing environment for change. The service model has been developed and refined since 2018 to now, involving stakeholders from the service team, the not-for-profit community organisation, and a university partner organisation, who provided evidence enrichment and support for clinical skill development. To date: the model has provided practitioners with structured and evidence-based ways of creating shared understandings with clients to prioritise cultural and relational needs; achieved culturally safe ways of engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse families; improved practitioners' confidence in detecting risk in parent-infant relationships; promoted effective communications with external providers; and enhanced therapeutic outcomes for vulnerable families at risk of entry into statutory child protection systems. The model may be suitable for uptake by practitioners and services seeking to improve cultural safety and therapeutic outcomes for diverse and vulnerable families. We share reflections on the scope and function of the model of care with reference to potential for broader application.

Parental history of positive development and child behavior in next generation offspring: A two-cohort prospective intergenerational study.

This study examined whether positive development (PD) in adolescence and young adulthood predicts offspring behavior in two Australasian intergenerational cohorts. The Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 Study assessed PD at age 19-28 (years 2002-2010) and behavior in 1165 infants (12-18 months; 608 girls) of 694 Australian-born parents (age 29-35; 2012-2019; 399 mothers). The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Parenting Study assessed PD at age 15-18 (years 1987-1991) and behavior in 695 preschoolers (3-5 years; 349 girls) and their New Zealand born parents (age 21-46; 1994-2018; 363 mothers; 89% European ethnicity). In both cohorts, PD before parenthood predicted more positive offspring behavior (ßrange  = .11-.16) and fewer behavior problems (ßrange  = -.09 to -.11). Promoting strengths may secure a healthy start to life.

Training of Lived Experience Workforces: A Rapid Review of Content and Outcomes.

Recently, the lived and living experience (LLE) workforce in mental health and alcohol and other drugs (AOD) sectors has expanded. Despite widespread benefit of this inclusion, some LLE practitioners have encountered personal and professional challenges in their workforce roles. An essential avenue to address these challenges is through provision of training to ensure adequate LLE role preparation, and to support integration of LLE workforces within mental health and AOD settings. We aim to understand the primary components applied in LLE training programs (i.e., content and methods), the outcomes from program participation, and to summarize observed patterns between training components and outcomes. This rapid review utilized a systematic methodology following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to synthesize existing literature on training programs for service users or carers/family in lived experience roles, in the mental health and AOD workforce. We searched CINAHL, PsycINFO, Medline, and Web of Science databases. We identified 36 relevant studies. Findings indicate short- and long-term impacts of training participation for this emerging workforce, with the most promising outcomes being increased professional knowledge and skills and improved personal psychosocial wellbeing and trauma recovery. Other positive training outcomes included high trainee satisfaction, increased application of training skills, and employment/education opportunities following training completion. Gaps and training limitations were noted in relation to the training content/delivery, trainee reservations, and personal barriers to training participation or completion. In response to program benefits and limitations investigated, we present recommendations for improving training processes for this workforce.

The Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 study: a population-based multigenerational prospective cohort study of socioemotional health and development.

PURPOSE: The Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 Study (ATPG3) was established to examine the extent to which offspring social and emotional development is shaped in the decades prior to conception, in parent and grandparent histories of psychosocial adjustment (eg, emotional regulation, relationship quality and prosociality) and maladjustment (eg, depressive symptoms, substance use and antisociality). PARTICIPANTS: The Australian Temperament Project (ATP) commenced in 1983 as a population representative survey of the social and emotional health of 2443 young Australians (Generation 2: 4-8 months old) and their parents (Generation 1). Since then, families have been followed from infancy to young adulthood (16 waves). Between 2012 and 2018, the cohort was screened biannually for pregnancies (Generation 3), with assessments conducted in the third trimester of pregnancy, and at 8 weeks and 1 year postpartum. FINDINGS TO DATE: A total of 1167 offspring (607 female) born to 703 Generation 2 parents (400 mothers) were recruited into the ATPG3 Study. Findings to date highlight: (1) strong continuities in depressive symptoms and substance use from adolescence through to becoming a parent; (2) a role for persistent preconception mental health problems in risk for parent-child bonding difficulties, as well as infant emotional reactivity and behaviour problems; (3) the importance of secure attachments in adolescence in reducing long-term risk for postpartum mental health problems; and (4) the protective nature of perceived social support, both preconception and postpartum, in strengthening relationship quality and social support during the COVID-19 pandemic. FUTURE PLANS: Assessments of ATPG3 families in preschool and middle childhood are currently funded and underway. We intend to maintain the offspring cohort through childhood, adolescence, young adulthood and into parenthood. Data will be used to map preconception determinants of emotional health, and enhance approaches to population monitoring and targeted intervention over the life course and across generations.

The Role of Antenatal and Postnatal Maternal Bonding in Infant Development.

OBJECTIVE: The affectional bond experienced by a mother toward her developing fetus/infant has been theorized to be a critical factor in determining infant developmental outcomes; yet there remains a paucity of research in this area, and a lack of high-quality longitudinal studies. This study aimed to examine the extent to which mother-to-infant bonding predicted infant development in a multi-wave longitudinal pregnancy cohort study (N = 1,347). METHOD: Self-reported bonding was assessed using the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale at each trimester, and the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale at 8 weeks and 12 months postpartum. Infant development was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) at 12 months. RESULTS: Bonding predicted indicators of infant social-affective development, including social-emotional, behavioral, and temperamental outcomes. Effect sizes ranged from small to moderate, increasing over the perinatal period (ß = 0.11-0.27). Very small effects were also identified in the relationship between bonding and cognitive, language, and motor development (ß = 0.06-0.08). CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that a mother's perceived emotional connection with her child plays a role in predicting social-affective outcomes; prediction may not extend to other domains of infant development. Maternal bonding may therefore be a potentially modifiable predictor of infant social-affective outcomes, offering important considerations for preventive intervention.

Preparing for Future Adversities: Lessons From the COVID-19 Pandemic in Australia for Promoting Relational Resilience in Families.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has placed considerable pressure on families, testing the quality of relationships and the strength of social support within and beyond the family network. However, little is known about the pre-pandemic factors that predict family relational resilience and social functioning during times of natural disaster or global crisis. Here we use data from one of Australia's longest running studies of social and emotional development to examine the nature and timing of possible relational and social support intervention aimed at preparing families for future adversities. Methods: Data were from the Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 (ATPG3) Study, a population representative three generation cohort study of families established in 1983. A subset of Generation 2 parents completed a COVID-19 specific survey in May-September 2020 (502 parents of 871 children; 60% mothers; 37-38 years). These participants had completed the Quality of Relationships Inventory to assess social support during young adulthood, at 23-24 years (2006) and 27-28 years (2010), before next generation conception. Participants had also completed the Maternity Social Support Scale 1 year postpartum for each child born across the ATPG3 assessment period (2012-2019). In 2020, during the height of the Australian lockdowns, participants rated the quality of their relationships with their partners, children and broader family and friends, in addition to social support within and extended beyond their family. Results: Pre-pandemic partner support was associated with partner relationship quality during the pandemic (ß = 0.22). Pre-pandemic support from friends was associated with relationship quality with other family and friends during the pandemic (ß = 0.12 - 0.18). Pre-pandemic support (from partner, family and friends) was consistently associated with social support within families during the pandemic (ß = 0.11 - 0.21). Pre-pandemic support from friends was also associated with family support extended to others within their local community during the pandemic (ß = 0.12 - 0.13). Conclusions: Strengthening supportive relationships during major life transitions, prior to the start of family life and in early parenthood, may have long-term and intergenerational benefits years into the future for both families and communities. This may promote resilience during future crises and other more normative stressful life events.

Young adult mental health sequelae of eating and body image disturbances in adolescence.

OBJECTIVE: There has been interest in the antecedents and mental health impacts of eating and body image disturbances in adolescence. Less is known about longer-term mental health impacts into young adulthood, as longitudinal studies with data spanning this developmental period are rare. We capitalize on mental health data collected across adolescence and young adulthood from a population-based cohort study that has been following >2000 Australian children and their families from infancy to young adulthood. METHOD: This sample comprised 1,568 participants who completed the Eating Disorder Inventory drive for thinness and bulimic behavior (the severity of binge-purge patterns) subscales, and a modified version of the body dissatisfaction subscale in mid-adolescence (15-16 years), or the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in young adulthood (19-20, 23-24, and 27-28 years). RESULTS: After adjusting for baseline demographic and prior mental health factors (<13 years of age), all three indices of eating and body image disturbances in adolescence predicted each mental health outcome in young adulthood. Mental health risks associated with adolescent body dissatisfaction and bulimic behavior scores remained stable across young adulthood, with men having more pronounced problems associated with bulimic behavior scores than women. In contrast, mental health risks associated with adolescent drive for thinness scores diminished across this period similarly for men and women. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that adolescent eating and body image disturbances may have long-term mental health impacts that extend into young adulthood. This underscores the need for early preventative intervention, and longer-term monitoring and support for body image and eating disturbances.

Parent and Peer Attachments in Adolescence and Paternal Postpartum Mental Health: Findings From the ATP Generation 3 Study.

Background: When adolescent boys experience close, secure relationships with their parents and peers, the implications are potentially far reaching, including lower levels of mental health problems in adolescence and young adulthood. Here we use rare prospective intergenerational data to extend our understanding of the impact of adolescent attachments on subsequent postpartum mental health problems in early fatherhood. Methods: At age 17-18 years, we used an abbreviated Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment to assess trust, communication, and alienation reported by 270 male participants in their relationships with mothers, fathers, and peers. More than a decade later, we assessed the adult males, now fathers, at 12 months postpartum (N = 409 infant offspring) for symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Logistic regression was used to examine the extent to which attachment dimensions predicted paternal postpartum mental health, adjusting for potential confounding, and with assessment for interactions between parent and peer attachments. Results: Trust in mothers and peers, and good communication with fathers during adolescence, were associated with 5 to 7 percentage point reductions in postpartum mental health symptoms in early fatherhood. Weak evidence of parent-peer interactions suggested secure attachments with either parent or peer may compensate for an insecure attachment with the other. Conclusions: Our results suggest that fostering trust and communication in relationships that adolescent boys have with parents and peers may have substantial effects on rates of paternal postpartum mental health problems. The protective benefits may be preventative in intergenerational cycles of risk for mental health problems.

Exploring Perinatal Indicators of Infant Social-Emotional Development: A Review of the Replicated Evidence.

The importance of infant social-emotional development for outcomes across the lifecourse has been amply demonstrated. Despite this, most screening measures of social-emotional development are designed for children 18 months of age and over, with a clear gap in earlier infancy. No systematic review has yet harvested the evidence for candidate indicators in the perinatal window. This paper examines modifiable risk and protective factors for two seminal early markers of social-emotional development: attachment security and behavioral regulation mid-infancy. We searched meta-analytic and longitudinal studies of developmental relationships between modifiable exposures in the perinatal window (pregnancy to 10 months postpartum) and attachment and behavioral regulation status measured between 12 and 18 months. Six electronic databases were used: ERIC, PsycINFO, Medline Complete, Informit, Embase, and Scopus. Twelve meta-analytic reviews and 38 original studies found replicated evidence for 12 indicators across infant, caregiving, and contextual domains predictive of infant behavioral regulation and attachment status between 12 and 18 months. Key among these were caregiving responsiveness, maternal mental health, couple relationship, and SES as a contextual factor. Perinatal factors most proximal to the infant had the strongest associations with social-emotional status. Beyond very low birthweight and medical risk, evidence for infant-specific factors was weaker. Risk and protective relationships were related but not always inverse. Findings from this review have the potential to inform the development of reliable tools for early screening of infant social-emotional development for application in primary care and population health contexts.

Exploring the Efficacy of Telehealth for Family Therapy Through Systematic, Meta-analytic, and Qualitative Evidence.

There is a current escalating need for telehealth (TH) options in family mental health services. In the absence of replicated evidence, TH guidelines from peak bodies are largely based on assumptions of the effectiveness of TH methods. New investments in TH would optimally be based in evidence of clinical efficacy. To this end, we conducted three studies in which we (1) systematically reviewed eight professional guidelines for TH family therapy, (2) examined replicated evidence for the efficacy of TH family therapy through systematic review of 20 studies and meta-analyses of 13 effects, and (3) synthesised clinical accommodations to TH methodology from a study of 12 experienced TH family therapists. The studies found (1) a predominant focus in existing TH guidelines on operational matters pertaining to TH and relative neglect of therapeutic process; (2) meta-analyses of efficacy for child behavioural problems (k = 8) and parental depression (k = 5) showed equivalent outcomes in TH and face-to-face therapy and enhanced outcomes in TH relative to treatment as usual, resource provision (i.e. written materials), or wait-list control. Narrative review of 20 studies for a range of relational and mental health outcomes aligned with these findings; and (3) therapists defined clear conditions for enhanced engagement and therapeutic process via TH and reflected on cautions and accommodations for purposes of rapport building and mitigating risk. Given moderate-strong evidence for the efficacy of TH methods of family therapy for a range of conditions, we offer recommendations for future implementation of TH for family therapy.

Mothers' Experience of Intimate Partner Violence and Subsequent Offspring Attachment Security Ages 1-5 Years: A Meta-Analysis.

Attachment status in early childhood is a key yet modifiable contributor to the development of social-emotional competence. The security and organization of the infant-mother attachment bond is particularly susceptible to stressors in the caregiving environment. While the impacts of normative interparental conflict on infant attachment are increasingly understood, the potentially unique place of intimate partner violence (IPV) in this pathway has been under-researched. This study surveyed all empirical work in this area, including unpublished literature (k = 6, N = 3,394), to examine meta-analytic associations between maternal experiences of IPV and offspring attachment security (ages 1-5 years) measured at least 6 months post-IPV exposure. Mothers' reports of IPV from pregnancy onward were inversely associated with offspring attachment security, r = -.23, CI [-0.42, -0.04], p = .02. Sample risk characteristics (e.g., clinical vs. community) moderated this association; child's age at attachment measurement and method of assessing child attachment (e.g., observational, representational, parent report) also moderated at a trend level. Implications for early screening, intervention, and future research are discussed.

Preconception and perinatal predictors of offspring attachment disorganization: Advancing the replicated evidence.

Attachment disorganization in early childhood is an influential yet modifiable risk factor for later mental health problems. Beyond established transmission through parents' unresolved attachment representations and caregiving sensitivity, little replicated evidence exists for wider determinants of offspring attachment disorganization. This study examined the replicated evidence for psychosocial risk factors in the preconception, prenatal, and postnatal periods. We identified all relevant longitudinal studies, and examined all risk relationships for which evidence existed in two or more cohorts (48 effects, 17 studies, N = 6,099). Study-specific and pooled risk associations were estimated and a range of moderators evaluated. Mothers' low socioeconomic status (r = .28, k = 2), perinatal loss of a child (r = .26, k = 2), caregiving intrusiveness (r = .31, k = 2), and infant male sex (r = .26, k = 4) predicted offspring attachment disorganization. Maternal sensitivity (r = -.25, k = 6) and higher metacognition during pregnancy (r = -.23, k = 3) predicted lower risk of offspring attachment disorganization. Findings suggest the origins of offspring disorganized attachment include but extend beyond maternal unresolved attachment representations and caregiving. We discuss implications for theory and for identification of modifiable risk pathways in the perinatal window.

Early childhood attachment stability and change: a meta-analysis.

Examining degrees of stability in attachment throughout early childhood is important for understanding developmental pathways and for informing intervention. Updating and building upon all prior meta-analyses, this study aimed to determine levels of stability in all forms of attachment classifications across early childhood. Attachment stability was assessed between three developmental epochs within early childhood: infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool/early school. To ensure data homogeneity, only studies that assessed attachment with methods based on the strange situation procedure were included. Results indicate moderate levels of stability at both the four-way (secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganised; κ = 0.23) and secure/insecure (r = 0.28) levels of assessment. Meta-regression analysis indicated security to be the most stable attachment organisation. This study also found evidence for publication bias, highlighting a preference for the publication of significant findings.

Maternal bonding, negative affect, and infant social-emotional development: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence suggest that maternal bonding and negative affect play a role in supporting infant social-emotional development (Branjerdporn et al., 2017; Kingston et al., 2012; O'Donnell et al., 2014; Van den Bergh et al., 2017). However, the complex pathways likely to exist between these constructs remain unclear, with limited research examining the temporal and potentially bi-directional associations between maternal bonding and negative affect across pregnancy and infancy. METHODS: The interrelationships between maternal bonding, negative affect, and infant social-emotional development were examined using multi-wave perinatal data from an Australian cohort study (N = 1,579). Self-reported bonding and negative affect were assessed at each trimester, and 8 weeks and 12 months postpartum. The Bayley-III social-emotional scale was administered at age 12 months. RESULTS: Results revealed strong continuities in bonding and negative affect across pregnancy and postpartum. Small associations (ß = -.10 to -.20) existed between maternal negative affect during pregnancy and poor early bonding. Higher postnatal maternal bonding predicted infant social-emotional development (ß = .17). LIMITATIONS: Limitations include a somewhat advantaged and predominantly Anglo-Saxon sample of families, and the use of self-report measures (though with strong psychometric properties). These limitations should be considered when interpreting the study findings. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal bonding and negative affect are interrelated yet unique constructs, with suggested developmental interplay between mother-to-infant bonding and infant social-affective development.