RESUMO
Dysfunctional hepatic metabolism has been linked to numerous diseases, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, the most common chronic liver disorder worldwide, which can progress to hepatic fibrosis, and is closely associated with insulin resistance and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, the liver secretes a wide array of metabolites, biomolecules, and microRNAs (miRNAs) and many of these secreted factors exert significant effects on metabolic processes both in the liver and in peripheral tissues. In this review, we summarize the involvement of liver-derived miRNAs in biological processes with an emphasis on delineating the communication between the liver and other tissues associated with metabolic disease progression. Furthermore, the review identifies the primary molecular targets by which miRNAs act. These consolidated findings from numerous studies provide insight into the underlying mechanism of various metabolic disease progression and suggest the possibility of using circulatory miRNAs as prognostic predictors and therapeutic targets for improving clinical intervention strategies.
RESUMO
BACKGROUND: As doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curricula must fulfill accreditation standards emphasizing managerial skills, entrepreneurship, continuing professional development (CPD), and leadership, there is interest among faculty to incorporate high-quality, evidence-based educational strategies. To date there has not been a comprehensive review of these four topics in one paper; therefore, we aimed to describe the landscape of the published literature and areas for future research. METHODS: A keyword search of Academic Search Complete/Premier and OvidMedline databases identified articles published between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2020. Inclusion criteria included primary, peer-reviewed literature describing the implementation and evaluation of teaching methodologies on aspects of management, entrepreneurship, CPD, or leadership in United States PharmD programs. Titles and abstracts were screened for inclusion. Key information regarding instructional design and assessment were retrieved to develop narrative summaries of activities and outcomes and to chart the student year of study, sample size, mode of delivery (didactic/experiential/co-curricular), type of experience (required/optional), and learning activity. RESULTS: Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria and were categorized: management (n = 12), entrepreneurship (n = 2), CPD (n = 7), and leadership (n = 14). The articles provided example activities that faculty across the country can consider implementing. Identified gaps included a focus on episodic and/or optional experiences and a relative lack of objective and longitudinal assessment practices. IMPLICATIONS: This review describes educational methodologies for management, entrepreneurship, CPD, and leadership that can be replicated or adapted. Additional reports of innovative educational practices assessed through valid and reliable methods are needed.