Correction: Untangling population structure and genetic diversity of reticulocyte binding protein 2b (PvRBP2b) erythrocytic stage vaccine candidate in worldwide Plasmodium vivax isolates.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266067.].

Optimized Refolding Buffers Oriented Humoral Immune Responses Versus PfGCS1 Self-Assembled Peptide Nanoparticle.

Developing a novel class of vaccine is pivotal for eliminating and eradicating malaria. Preceding investigations demonstrated partial blocking activity in malaria transmission against recombinant vaccine PfHAP2-GCS1 and conserved region of the cd loop. The effectiveness of immune response varies with the size and shape of the self-assembly of peptide nanoparticles (SAPNs) displaying antigen, affected by different components in refolding buffers. Plasmodium falciparum Generative Cell Specific 1 (PfGCS1), a promising malaria transmission-blocking vaccine (TBV) candidate, was expressed, purified, and followed by a four-step refolding process to form nanoparticles (PfGCS1-SAPNs). The influence of buffer components on the size and shape of SAPNs was investigated by DLS and FESEM. Furthermore, the immunogenicity of nanostructures was assessed in different mouse groups. The results showed that PfGCS1-SAPN was immunogenic and its administration with Poly (I:C), stimulated humoral and cellular responses in the mouse model. In the immunized mice groups, the level of IgG antibodies against PfGCS1-SAPN was significantly increased in different time points (second and third boost) and heterogeneous boosters. The various IgG-subclasses profile shifted to Th1, Th2, or Th1/Th2 mix responses in mice immunized with PfGCS1-SAPN refolded in different buffers, indicating a prerequisite for further investigations to optimize vaccine formulation to enhance and modulate Th1/cellular responses. Such studies pave the way to improve biophysical features related to the nanoparticles' size, shape, and conformational epitopes of candidate antigens and T- and B-cells presented on the superficial structure to elicit robust immune responses.

Evaluation of a new fusion antigen, cd loop and HAP2-GCS1 domain (cd-HAP) of Plasmodium falciparum Generative Cell Specific 1 antigen formulated with various adjuvants, as a transmission blocking vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is a major global health challenge, and for the elimination and eradication of this disease, transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs) are a priority. Plasmodium falciparum Generative Cell Specific 1 (PfGCS1), a promising TBV candidate, is essential for gamete fertilization. The HAP2-GCS1 domain of this antigen as well as its cd loop could induce antibodies that partially inhibit transmission of P. falciparum. METHODS: In the current study, a new synthetic fusion antigen containing cd loop and HAP2-GCS1 domain (cd-HAP) of PfGCS1 was evaluated as a transmission blocking vaccine candidate. Initially, the profile of naturally acquired IgG antibodies to the cd-HAP antigen was analysed in Iranian individuals infected with P. falciparum, to confirm that this new fusion protein has the appropriate structure containing common epitopes with the native form of PfGCS1. Then, the immunogenicity of cd-HAP was evaluated in BALB/c mice, using different adjuvant systems such as CpG, MPL, QS-21, and a combination of them (CMQ). Furthermore, the blocking efficacy of polyclonal antibodies induced against these formulations was also assessed by oocyst intensity and infection prevalence in the Standard Membrane Feeding Assay (SMFA). RESULTS: The naturally acquired antibodies (dominantly IgG1 and IgG3 subclasses) induced in P. falciparum-infected individuals could recognize the cd-HAP antigen which implies that the new fusion protein has a proper conformation that mimics the native structure of PfGCS1. Concerning the immunogenicity of cd-HAP antigen, the highest IgG levels and titers, by a Th1-type immune profile, and elevated antibody avidity were induced in mice immunized with the cd-HAP antigen formulated with a combination of adjuvants (P < 0.0001). Additionally, cytokine profiling of the immunized mice displayed that a high level of IFN-γ response, a Th1-type immune response, was produced by splenocytes from immunized mice that received cd-HAP antigen in combination with CMQ adjuvants (P < 0.0001). This formulation of cd-HAP antigen with CMQ adjuvants could reduce oocyst intensity and infection prevalence by 82%, evidenced by the SMFA and hold significant implications for future malaria vaccine development. CONCLUSION: Altogether, the results showed that cd-HAP antigen formulated with a combination of the adjuvants (CMQ), could be a promising formulation to develop a PfGCS1-based transmission-blocking vaccine.

Molecular epidemiology of potential candidate markers for chloroquine resistance in imported Plasmodium vivax malaria cases in Iran.

BACKGROUND: The spread of Plasmodium vivax strains resistant to chloroquine (CQ) has posed a challenge to control strategies aimed at eliminating malaria. Molecular analysis of candidate resistance markers is very important for monitoring the P. vivax resistance to CQ in different endemic regions. In the present study, the multidrug resistance 1 (pvmdr1) gene, a possible marker for CQ resistance in P. vivax, was evaluated by molecular methods. METHODS: A simple PCR-RFLP method was developed for mutation analysis in pvmdr1 gene. A number of 120 blood spots were obtained from patients with P. vivax mono-infection in 2021. All of the samples were collected from Pakistani patients who travelled to Iran. RESULTS: None of the samples had any mutation at codon 976 of pvmdr1, while the 1076 mutation was detected in 96.2% of the examined isolates. Only two pvmdr1 haplotypes were identified, including the single mutant (Y976/1076L) as the most prevalent haplotype (with 96.2% frequency) and the wild type (Y976/F1076; with 3.8% frequency). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, the major CQ resistance-mediating mutation and multiple mutant haplotypes of the pvmdr1 gene was not detected. However, continuous monitoring of drug resistance markers and close supervision of the efficacy of CQ is essential to detect the potential emergence of CQ-resistant P. vivax isolates in Iran. This data is important for performing future epidemiological surveillance to monitor CQ resistance in this endemic area and the bordering regions.

CRISPR/Cas advancements for genome editing, diagnosis, therapeutics, and vaccine development for Plasmodium parasites, and genetic engineering of Anopheles mosquito vector.

Malaria as vector-borne disease remains important health concern with over 200 million cases globally. Novel antimalarial medicines and more effective vaccines must be developed to eliminate and eradicate malaria. Appraisal of preceding genome editing approaches confirmed the CRISPR/Cas nuclease system as a novel proficient genome editing system and a tool for species-specific diagnosis, and drug resistance researches for Plasmodium species, and gene drive to control Anopheles population. CRISPR/Cas technology, as a handy tool for genome editing can be justified for the production of transgenic malaria parasites like Plasmodium transgenic lines expressing Cas9, chimeric Plasmodium transgenic lines, knockdown and knockout transgenic parasites, and transgenic parasites expressing alternative alleles, and also mutant strains of Anopheles such as only male mosquito populations, generation of wingless mosquitoes, and creation of knock-out/ knock-in mutants. Though, the incorporation of traditional methods and novel molecular techniques could noticeably enhance the quality of results. The striking development of a CRISPR/Cas-based diagnostic kit that can specifically diagnose the Plasmodium species or drug resistance markers is highly required in malaria settings with affordable cost and high-speed detection. Furthermore, the advancement of genome modifications by CRISPR/Cas technologies resolves contemporary restrictions to culturing, maintaining, and analyzing these parasites, and the aptitude to investigate parasite genome functions opens up new vistas in the better understanding of pathogenesis.

How can we develop an effective subunit vaccine to achieve successful malaria eradication?

Malaria, a mosquito-borne infection, is the most widespread parasitic disease. Despite numerous efforts to eradicate malaria, this disease is still a health concern worldwide. Owing to insecticide-resistant vectors and drug-resistant parasites, available controlling measures are insufficient to achieve a malaria-free world. Thus, there is an urgent need for new intervention tools such as efficient malaria vaccines. Subunit vaccines are the most promising malaria vaccines under development. However, one of the major drawbacks of subunit vaccines is the lack of efficient and durable immune responses including antigen-specific antibody, CD4+, and CD8+ T-cell responses, long-lived plasma cells, memory cells, and functional antibodies for parasite neutralization or inhibition of parasite invasion. These types of responses could be induced by whole organism vaccines, but eliciting these responses with subunit vaccines has been proven to be more challenging. Consequently, subunit vaccines require several policies to overcome these challenges. In this review, we address common approaches that can improve the efficacy of subunit vaccines against malaria.

Measuring of IgG2c isotype instead of IgG2a in immunized C57BL/6 mice with Plasmodium vivax TRAP as a subunit vaccine candidate in order to correct interpretation of Th1 versus Th2 immune response.

Evaluation of the murine isotype antibodies is essential in subunit vaccine development because inbred mouse strains with diverse genetic backgrounds respond different to recombinant proteins. In this regard, the main goal of this study was to measuring and comparing the profile of IgG isotype responses in C57BL/6 mice. For this purpose, the extracellular region of plasmodium vivax thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (PvTRAP) gene was expressed in Escherichia coli Rosetta (DE3)-pET23a. Then, the recombinant PvTRAP alone or emulsified with Freund's complete adjuvant were applied for immunization of the C57BL/6 mice. The role of antibodies and cellular immune responses induced by recombinant PvTRAP were evaluated. The results showed the level of anti-rPvTRAP IgG2c was significantly higher than IgG2a in the groups that received rPvTRAP alone (mean OD490 = 0.798 ± 0.12 and 0.39 ± 0.1, respectively) and emulsified with CFA/IFA (mean OD490 = 1.48 ± 0.07 and 0.605 ± 0.13, respectively; P < 0.05, independent sample t-test). Additionally, the immunized mice with rPvTRAP and rPvTRAP + CFA/IFA had an intermediate-avidity IgG2a antibody but high-avidity IgG2c antibody as well as the mean of serum antibody titers results exhibited that in both rPvTRAP and rPvTRAP + CFA/IFA mouse groups, IgG2a end-point titer (1:3200 and 1:25,600, respectively) was noteworthy lower than IgG2c (1:25,600 and 1:102,400, respectively). Moreover, the results revealed the eliciting significant levels of IFN-γ (P < 0.05, independent sample t-test) and no detectable level of IL-4 in the mouse groups received rPvTRAP alone and emulsified with CFA/IFA as compared to the mouse control groups. In general, our results showed that for correctly interpreting of Th1 immune responses in C57BL/6 mouse strain it is critical to measure IgG2c instead of IgG2a along with IFN-γ.

Streptococcus mutans, sugar consumption, and oral hygiene: Which one has more effect on decayed, missing, and filled teeth (DMFT) score in Iranian adults?

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus mutans as an acid-generator of biofilm, sugar as a caries-conducive environment, and oral hygiene have been implicated as major etiological agents in dental caries. This study was designed to assess the association and impact of S. mutans, sugar consumption, and tooth brushing on decayed, missing, and filled teeth (DMFT) score in Iranian 20-30-year-old individuals and compare the effect of the three mentioned factors to find the most effective one. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 459 adults completed a Sugar Frequency Questionnaire and were examined for dental caries using DMFT index, sugar consumption level, and tooth brushing frequency per day. Saliva and plaque samples were collected, and the target population without Streptococcus sobrinus in their microbial oral community was selected using polymerase chain reaction technique. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance and multiple linear regression tests (α = 0.05). RESULTS: Nearly 77.1% of the study population were harboring S. mutans. Mean DMFT of the population was 6.62. Mean comparison analysis showed that there is a strong relationship between S. mutans existence in mouth flora and DMFT scores (P < 0.0001). Multiple linear regression test showed higher percentage of S. mutans contribution (28.2%) in DMFT score changes than sugar consumption (3.6%) and tooth brushing (0.7%). CONCLUSION: This study provides a recent report from S. mutans frequency and DMFT score in Iranian adult population. It is also the first study that shows significantly higher impact of S. mutans in microbial population of mouth microflora on caries development than sugar consumption and oral hygiene. Accordingly, S. mutans screening program should be more highlighted in preventive strategies.

Population genetic structure analysis of thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (TRAP) as a vaccine candidate antigen in worldwide Plasmodium falciparum isolates.

Antigenic diversity is a major concern in malaria vaccine development that requires to be considered in developing a malaria vaccine. Plasmodium falciparum thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (PfTRAP) is a leading malaria vaccine candidate antigen. In the current study, we investigated the level of genetic diversity and natural selection of pftrap sequences in P. falciparum isolates from Iran (n = 47). The gene diversity of Iranian pftrap sequences was also compared to available global pftrap sequences deposited in the GenBank or PlasmoDB databases (n = 220). Comparison of Iranian PfTRAP sequences with T9/96 reference sequence showed the presence of 35 amino acid changes in 32 positions and a limited variation in repeat sequences, leading to 13 distinct haplotypes. The overall nucleotide diversity (π) for the ectodomain of Iranian pftrap sequences was 0.00444 ± 0.00043, with the highest diversity in Domain IV. Alignment comparison of global PfTRAP sequences with T9/96 reference sequence indicated 96 amino acid replacements as well as extensive variable repeat sequences (9-23 repeats), which led to 192 haplotypes. Among the global isolates, the lowest nucleotide diversity was detected in French Guianan (0.00428 ± 0.00163) and Iranian (0.00444 ± 0.00043) pftrap sequences, and the most variation was observed in domains II and IV in all populations. The dN-dS value displayed the evidence of positive selection due to recombination and immune system pressure. The Fst analysis revealed a gene flow between African populations; however, genetic differentiation observed between Iranian and other populations probably was due to gene flow barriers. Both conserved and variable epitopes were predicted in B- and T-cell epitopes of PfTRAP antigen. The obtained results from this study could be helpful for developing a PfTRAP-based malaria vaccine.

Heterogeneity in the acquisition of naturally acquired antibodies to cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites (CelTOS) and thrombospondin-related adhesion protein (TRAP) of Plasmodium falciparum in naturally infected patients from unstable malaria areas in Iran.

Currently, there is no subunit malaria vaccine capable of providing long-lasting protection, and a vaccine based on a single-antigen has shown moderate to unsatisfactory efficacies in clinical trials. As in malaria elimination and eradication strategies, the primary objective is reduction in disease and death due to P. falciparum, in the present investigation, for the first time, we attempted to determine and compare the naturally acquired immune responses to two well-recognized sporozoite antigens, cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites (CelTOS) and thrombospondin-related adhesion protein (TRAP), in P. falciparum-infected individuals (n = 204) in low malaria transmission settings of Iran using ELISA. Besides, the profile of IgG isotype responses, the avidity of IgG, IgG1, and IgG3, and the association of anti-PfCelTOS and -PfTRAP antibodies with host age were evaluated. Positive antibody responses to PfCelTOS and PfTRAP antigens were detected in 16.2% and 31.9% of Iranian P. falciparum-infected individuals, respectively, indicating significantly lower immune response to PfCelTOS than PfTRAP (P <0.0001, McNemar's test). Also, among the positive samples for anti-PfCelTOS (n = 33) and -PfTRAP (n = 65) total IgG, the cytophilic IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies were predominant. A significant proportion of the examined positive responders had high- and intermediate-avidity for IgG (93.9%, 87.7%), IgG1 (96.3%, 87.7%), and IgG3 (76%, 78.7%) antibodies to both PfCelTOS and PfTRAP antigens, respectively, with no correlation with age (P >0.05; Spearman's correlation test). In conclusion, the present data suggests the acquisition of heterogenic immune responses to both antigens in the same patients naturally infected with P. falciparum from settings of low malaria transmission intensity in Iran in which their role in protection to malaria needs further study.

Analysis of genetic diversity and population structure of gene encoding cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites (CelTOS) vaccine candidate antigen in global Plasmodium falciparum populations.

Plasmodium falciparum cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites (PfCelTOS) has been reported as one of the most attractive malaria vaccine candidate antigens. To design a broadly effective malaria vaccine based on this antigen, it is crucial to have adequate information on genetic diversity in global PfCelTOS. Therefore, the extent of sequence diversity at the full-length of the pfceltos was assessed among both natural P. falciparum isolates collected from Iran (n = 93) and from available global pfceltos sequence data retrieved from PlasmoDB database (n = 159). Also, recombination, natural selection, the degree of genetic differentiation as well as the predicted immunodominant regions in PfCelTOS were analyzed. In total, 40 SNPs (including 1 synonymous and 39 non-synonymous) were detected in 34 positions, as compared to 3D7 sequence, which led to 66 distinct haplotypes with different frequencies. Among those haplotypes, 34 (51.5%, excluded from further analysis) were singleton haplotype and mostly detected among Senegalese parasite isolates. PfCelt-1 was found as predominant haplotype (32.6% total frequency) that was only detected in Iranian P. falciparum isolates. Nucleotide diversity was low in French Guiana (0.00236 ±â€¯0.00203) and Iranian (0.00259 ±â€¯0.00048) P. falciparum isolates in comparison with African populations. Evidence for positive selection by host immunity and intragenic recombination were detected that are two key factors responsible for gene evolution and genetic diversity of pfceltos gene. The results of Fst analysis and haplotype network revealed that PfCelTOS antigen displayed evident genetic structure between geographical parasite populations. In conclusion, the present analysis demonstrates that there is a limited antigenic diversity and geographic variation in global PfCelTOS, and this finding may be associated with the critical function of this antigen in cell traversal of the parasite in sporozoite and ookinete. Besides, most of the predicted B- and T-cell epitopes were located in the conserved region of the gene, but most of the amino acid replacements were located at the C-terminal region of PfCelTOS. The obtained results in this investigation could provide knowledge for better design of PfCelTOS-based malaria vaccine.

Poly(I:C) adjuvant strongly enhances parasite-inhibitory antibodies and Th1 response against Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-1 (42-kDa fragment) in BALB/c mice.

Malaria vaccine development has been confronted with various challenges such as poor immunogenicity of malaria vaccine candidate antigens, which is considered as the main challenge. However, this problem can be managed using appropriate formulations of antigens and adjuvants. Poly(I:C) is a potent Th1 inducer and a human compatible adjuvant capable of stimulating both B- and T-cell immunity. Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein 142 (PfMSP-142) is a promising vaccine candidate for blood stage of malaria that has faced several difficulties in clinical trials, mainly due to improper adjuvants. Therefore, in the current study, poly(I:C), as a potent Th1 inducer adjuvant, was evaluated to improve the immunogenicity of recombinant PfMSP-142, when compared to CFA/IFA, as reference adjuvant. Poly(I:C) produced high level and titers of anti-PfMSP-142 IgG antibodies in which was comparable to CFA/IFA adjuvant. In addition, PfMSP-142 formulated with poly(I:C) elicited a higher ratio of IFN-γ/IL-4 (23.9) and IgG2a/IgG1 (3.77) with more persistent, higher avidity, and titer of IgG2a relative to CFA/IFA, indicating a potent Th1 immune response. Poly(I:C) could also help to induce anti-PfMSP-142 antibodies with higher growth-inhibitory activity than CFA/IFA. Altogether, the results of the current study demonstrated that poly(I:C) is a potent adjuvant that can be appropriate for being used in PfMSP-142-based vaccine formulations.

Limited genetic diversity in the global Plasmodium vivax Cell traversal protein of Ookinetes and Sporozoites (CelTOS) sequences; implications for PvCelTOS-based vaccine development.

Cell traversal protein of Ookinetes and Sporozoites (CelTOS) is a new malaria vaccine candidate antigen. Since one of the main challenges in malaria vaccine development is the extensive antigenic diversity of this parasite, local and global gene diversity analysis is of particular importance. Therefore, in this study, the genetic diversity of pvceltos gene was investigated among Iranian P. vivax isolates (n=46) and compared with available worldwide pvceltos sequences. One synonymous (C109A) and three amino acid replacements (V118L, K178T, and G179R) were observed in Iranian pvceltos sequences in compare with Sal-1 sequence leading to five haplotypes including PvCelt-A (GSVKGL, 13%), PvCelt-B (GSLKGL, 50%), PvCelt-C (GSLTGL, 17.4%), PvCelt-D (GSVTGL, 13%) and PvCelt-E (GSLTRL, 6.5%). However, amino acid replacements were observed in six positions (G10S, S40N, V118L/M, K178T, G179R/D and L181R) in PvCelTOS antigen of global isolates leading to 11 distinct haplotypes. PvCelt-A and PvCelt-B haplotypes were the most common haplotypes in the world. The overall nucleotide diversity for Iranian isolates was 0.00169, while, the level of nucleotide diversity was ranged from 0.00252 for Thailand to 0.00022 for Peru populations in the world. The analysis of SNPs in relation with the predicted immunodominant regions revealed that only K178T and G179R SNPs are located in putative B-cell epitopes. All replacements were located in CD4+ and/or CD8+ T-cell epitopes. However, the majority of epitopes are located in conserved regions. Knowing whether these changes may alter the affinity of the epitopes for antibodies and/or MHC molecules remains to be investigated in experimental studies. In conclusion, the present study showed a very limited genetic diversity in pvceltos gene among the global clinical isolates that can be regarded as a potential candidate antigen to apply for vivax-based malaria vaccine development.

Naturally acquired immune responses to thrombospondin-related adhesion protein (TRAP) of Plasmodium vivax in patients from areas of unstable malaria transmission.

A key tool for the control, elimination, and eradication of Plasmodium vivax is the development of an effective vaccine. The thrombospondin-related adhesion protein (TRAP) is one of the major sporozoite antigens that plays an important role in the invasion of mosquito salivary glands and hepatocytes by sporozoites. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the naturally acquired antibodies to the P. vivax TRAP (PvTRAP) in patients from malaria-endemic areas of Iran (n=116), Afghanistan (n=50), and Pakistan (n=50). The PvTRAP gene was expressed in Escherichia coli Rosetta (DE3)-pET23a and used as antigen in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The profile of immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotype and the avidity of IgG, IgG1, and IgG3 to PvTRAP, as well as the association between anti-PvTRAP isotype responses and host age were evaluated. Only 42.24% of Iranian, 38% of Afghani, and 44% of Pakistani patients infected with P. vivax had positive anti-PvTRAP IgG, and the prevalence of responders in the three countries did not differ significantly (P>0.05). Moreover, the prevalence of IgG1 and IgG3 antibody responses to PvTRAP showed no significant correlation with age (P>0.05). Individuals exposed to vivax malaria in the unstable malaria transmission areas are able to produce antibodies to the TRAP antigen at all ages in response to P. vivax infections. Finally, the presence of mature IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies with high to intermediate avidity against PvTRAP antigen (>60%) provide more information to understand the interactions between the host and P. vivax parasite. In summary, the present study provides data that support the rational development of an effective pre-erythrocytic stage vaccine based on PvTRAP antigen.

Anti-malarial seroprevalence assessment during an elimination programme in Chabahar District, south-eastern Iran.

BACKGROUND: Iran has achieved a substantial decline in malaria incidence over the past decades. A common feature of malaria-endemic settings is the requirement for more sensitive techniques to describe levels of low transmission. In this study, serological and parasitological methods were used to measure transmission levels of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax during an elimination programme (2012) in Chabahar District, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, south-eastern Iran. METHODS: Participants were randomly selected from 64 different geographical clusters in Chabahar city and surrounding villages. Antibody responses to P. falciparum and P. vivax blood-stage antigens were assessed by ELISA, while microscopy and molecular testing were used to determine parasite carriage by species. Age-adjusted antibody responses were analysed using a reversible catalytic model to calculate seroconversion rates (SCR). RESULTS: There was no evidence of recent transmission in the study areas, indicated by an absence of parasite infections in all ages and low or absent serological responses to either species in young children. The best model for age P. falciparum seroconversion was one with a change in exposure 21 years before sampling was done in Chabahar city (P = 0.018) and 4 years in the villages (P = 0.039). There was a higher level of recent P. vivax transmission compared to P. falciparum, based on the SCRs, in both the city and village settings. CONCLUSION: Serological analysis identified a decline in P. falciparum transmission in the urban areas of Chabahar, consistent with a previously described decrease in malaria in the early 1990s, demonstrating the utility of this approach to reconstruct exposure history. At present, it remains unclear whether the P. vivax antibody responses reflect active transmission due to new infections or relapse infections. The absence of parasitological and serological evidence of recent malaria transmission in Chabahar District is viable evidence for certification of elimination.

Worldwide population genetic analysis and natural selection in the Plasmodium vivax Generative Cell Specific 1 (PvGCS1) as a transmission-blocking vaccine candidate.

GENERATIVE CELL SPECIFIC 1 (GCS1) is one of the Transmission Blocking Vaccine (TBV) candidate antigens, which is expressed on the surface of male gametocytes and gametes of Plasmodium species. Since antigenic diversity could inhibit the successful development of a malaria vaccine, it is crucial to determine the diversity of gcs1 gene in global malaria-endemic areas. Therefore, gene diversity and selection of gcs1 gene were analyzed in Iranian Plasmodium vivax isolates (n=52) and compared with the corresponding sequences from worldwide clinical P. vivax isolates available in PlasmoDB database. Totally 12 SNPs were detected in the pvgcs1 sequences as compared to Sal-1 sequence. Five out of 12 SNPs including three synonymous (T797C, G1559A, and G1667T) and two amino acid replacements (Y133S and Q634P) were detected in Iranian pvgcs1 sequences. According to four amino acid replacements (Y133S, N575S, Q634P and D637N) observed in all world PvGCS1 sequences, totally 5 PvGCS1 haplotypes were detected in the world, that three of them observed in Iranian isolates including the PvGCS-A (133S/634Q, 92.3%), PvGCS-B (133Y/634Q, 5.8%), and PvGCS-C (133S/634P, 1.9%). The overall nucleotide diversity (π) for all 52 sequences of Iranian pvgcs1 gene was 0.00018±0.00006, and the value of dN-dS (-0.00031) were negative, however, it was not statistically significant. In comparison with global isolates, Iranian and PNG pvgcs1 sequences had the lowest nucleotide and haplotype diversity, while the highest nucleotide and haplotype diversity was observed in China population. Moreover, epitope prediction in this antigen showed that all B-cell epitopes were located in conserved regions. However, Q634P (in one Iranian isolate) and D637N (observed in Thailand, China, Vietnam and North Korea) mutations are involved in predicted IURs. The obtained results in this study could be used in development of PvGCS1 based malaria vaccine.

Population genetics structure of Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite protein during the elimination process in low and unstable malaria transmission areas, southeast of Iran.

In Iran, the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax has dropped after a national malaria elimination program was launched. To estimate the likelihood of success and to measure the outcome of malaria intervention tools during elimination programs (2008-2012), the population genetic surveys of Iranian P. vivax isolates (n=60) were carried out using the CSP genetic marker. The results were compared with a similar work that was carried out during a control phase (2000-2003) in the same study areas. Based on PCR-RFLP analysis, 49 (81.67%) of 60 studied samples were VK210 and 11 (18.33%) were VK247 with no mixed genotypes. However, 10.97% of P. vivax isolates of control phase harbored the mixed genotypes. Sequencing analysis of 50 pvcsp gene showed 14 distinct haplotypes, of which 11 and 3 were VK210 and VK247 types, respectively. However, during the control phase, 19 distinct subtypes (11 VK210 and 8 VK247) were reported. Also, 7 of 11 VK210 and the VK247F subtypes were new, and 3 out of 7 new VK210 and VK247F were isolated from the patients with Pakistani nationality. The lower nucleotide diversity per site (π=0.02017±0.00436 and π=0.04525±0.00255) and haplotype diversity (Hd=0.513±0.093 and Hd=0.691±0.128) as well as lower In/Del haplotype [Hd(i)=0.243 and 0] and nucleotide diversity [π(i)=0.00078 and 0] were recorded for VK210 and VK247of the elimination samples, respectively. In conclusion, the comparison of PRMs and RATs in CRR along with the polymorphism analysis of the sequence lengths, SNPs, and In/Del polymorphisms in all analyzed samples showed lower genetic diversity for PvCSP in the elimination samples. Also, although there is a turnover of P. vivax parasite genotypes in the study areas, reduction in genetic diversity and transmission was detected due to scaling-up of the intervention tools during an elimination program in Iran. This notable challenge of the elimination program must be taken into account and controlled by active surveillance for limiting both reintroductions of new allelic forms as well as the spread of drug-resistant parasite to prevent any disease outbreaks.

A comparative study on worldwide genetic diversity and population structure analysis of Plasmodium vivax thrombospondin-related adhesive protein (PvTRAP) and its implications for the vivax vaccine design.

Plasmodium vivax thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (PvTRAP) is a promising malaria vaccine candidate; however, it exhibits sequence heterogeneity. Therefore, to design a broadly protective vivax vaccine, it is essential to have adequate information on signatures of selection and geospatial genetic diversity of global PvTRAP. For this purpose, 50 Iranian pvtrap were sequenced and compared with related available global sequences in GenBank. The nucleotide sequence analysis of Iranian pvtrap in comparison with the Sal-1 sequence showed the occurrence of 15 SNPs, and all sites were dimorphic. In total, 12 amino acid substitutions were detected and 2 of which were novel, resulting in 10 haplotypes that 8 of them were not reported in any other geographic regions. In comparison with global population, haplotype and nucleotide diversities were lowest in South Korean populations while higher levels of diversities were observed in Thai and Brazilian P. vivax populations. All 12 amino acid replacements in ectodomain of Iranian PvTRAP were distributed in predicted either B- or T-cells epitope as well as intrinsically unstructured/disordered regions (IURs). The present results revealed that observing the relatively low-level diversity in PvTRAP protein might actually be selected by immune response. In summary, the present analysis in parallel to the limited available published data has shown that genetic diversity in the global pvtrap exhibits low-level diversity and geographic variation. These results are of practical significance for the strategic development and deployment of control measures in particular for development of PvTRAP-based malaria vaccine.

Molecular genetic analysis of Plasmodium vivax isolates from Eastern and Central Sudan using pvcsp and pvmsp-3α genes as molecular markers.

In Sudan, Plasmodium vivax accounts for approximately 5-10% of malaria cases. This study was carried out to determine the genetic diversity of P. vivax population from Sudan by analyzing the polymorphism of P. vivax csp (pvcsp) and pvmsp-3α genes. Blood samples (n=76) were taken from suspected malaria cases from 2012-2013 in three health centers of Eastern and Central Sudan. Parasite detection was performed by microscopy and molecular techniques, and genotyping of both genes was performed by PCR-RFLP followed by DNA sequence for only pvcsp gene (n=30). Based on microscopy analysis, 76 (%100) patients were infected with P. vivax, whereas nested-PCR results showed that 86.8% (n=66), 3.9% (n=3), and 3.9% (n=3) of tested samples had P. vivax as well as Plasmodium falciparum mono- and mixed infections, respectively. Four out of 76 samples had no results in molecular diagnosis. All sequenced samples were found to be of VK210 (100%) genotype with six distinct amino acid haplotypes, and 210A (66.7%) was the most prevalent haplotype. The Sudanese isolates displayed variations in the peptide repeat motifs (PRMs) ranging from 17 to 19 with GDRADGQPA (PRM1), GDRAAGQPA (PRM2) and DDRAAGQPA (PRM3). Also, 54 polymorphic sites with 56 mutations were found in repeat and post-repeat regions of the pvcsp and the overall nucleotide diversity (π) was 0.02149±0.00539. A negative value of dN-dS (-0.0344) was found that suggested a significant purifying selection of Sudanese pvcsp, (Z test, P<0.05). Regarding pvmsp-3α, three types were detected: types A (94.6%, 52/55), type C (3.6%, 2/55), and type B (1.8%, 1/55). No multiclonal infections were detected, and RFLP analysis identified 13 (Hha I, A1-A11, B1, and C1) and 16 (Alu I, A1-A14, B1, and C1) distinct allelic forms. In conclusion, genetic investigation among Sudanese P. vivax isolates indicated that this antigen showed limited antigenic diversity.

Population genetics and natural selection in the gene encoding the Duffy binding protein II in Iranian Plasmodium vivax wild isolates.

Region II of Duffy binding protein (PvDBP-II) is one of the most promising blood-stage vaccine candidate antigens against Plasmodium vivax and having knowledge of the nature and genetic polymorphism of PvDBP-II among global P. vivax isolates is important for developing a DBP-based vaccine. By using PCR and sequencing, the present molecular population genetic approach was carried out to investigate sequence diversity and natural selection of dbp-II gene in 63 P. vivax isolates collected from unstable and low transmission malaria-endemic areas of Iran during 2008-2012. Also, phylogenetic analysis, the diversifying natural selection, and recombination across the pvdbp-II gene, including regions containing B-cell epitopes were analyzed using the DnaSP and MEGA4 programs. Twenty two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, including 20 non-synonymous and 2 synonymous) were identified in PvDBP-II, resulting in 16 different PvDBP-II haplotypes among the Iranian P. vivax isolates. High binding inhibitory B-cell epitope (H3) overlapping with intrinsically unstructured/disordered region (aa: 384-392) appeared to be highly polymorphic (D384G/E385K/ K386N/Q/R390H), and positive selective pressure acted on this region. Most of the polymorphic amino acids, which are located on the surface of the protein, are under selective pressure that implies increased recombination events and exposure to the human immune system. In summary, PvDBP-II gene displays genetic polymorphism among Iranian P. vivax isolates and it is under selective pressure. Mutations, recombination, and positive selection seem to play a role in the resulting genetic diversity, and phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences demonstrates that Iranian isolates represent a sample of the global population. These results are useful for understanding the nature of the P. vivax population in Iran and also for development of PvDBP-II-based malaria vaccine.