Endogenous endothelin increases gallbladder tone and leads to acute cholecystitis in the Australian possum.

Endothelins are bioactive peptides produced by gallbladder epithelial cells. We aimed to determine the role of endothelins in acute cholecystitis. Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide vs saline (sham) was instilled into the gallbladder lumen of Australian possums. Some animals received the non-selective endothelin antagonist, tezosentan. At 4 or 24 h, plasma and gallbladder endothelins and white blood cell count (WBCC) were determined. Acute cholecystitis was assessed using a histopathology score. In other animals gallbladder tone was determined. At 4h, a dose-dependent 60-fold increase in gallbladder endothelin level occurred (P = 0.001) but other parameters remained comparable with sham animals. Epithelial cells were endothelin-immunoreactive. At 24 h, the WBCC rose (P < 0.007), and severe cholecystitis developed. Gallbladder but not plasma endothelin levels remained elevated. Tezosentan pre-treatment resulted in a histologically normal gallbladder, but the WBCC and gallbladder endothelin levels were elevated. Lipopolysaccharide or saline instillation also caused a time-dependent increase in gallbladder tone over 4 h (P < 0.001), but not in control animals. This increase was reduced by tezosentan treatment. Gallbladder endothelin production is an early event in acute cholecystitis, increases gallbladder tone and plays a crucial role in the inflammatory process.

Increased thirst and vasopressin secretion after myocardial infarction in rats.

Impaired regulation of salt and water balance in left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure can lead to pulmonary and peripheral edema and hyponatremia. Previous studies of disordered water regulation in heart failure have used models of low cardiac output with normal cardiac function (e.g., inferior vena cava ligation). We investigated thirst and vasopressin (AVP) secretion in a rat myocardial infarction model of chronic left ventricular dysfunction/heart failure in response to a 24-h water deprivation period. Thirst (implied from water drunk), hematocrit, plasma renin activity, and plasma AVP concentrations increased with water deprivation vs. ad libitum water access. Thirst and plasma AVP concentrations were significantly positively correlated with infarct size after 24-h water deprivation but not under ad libitum water access conditions. The mechanism by which this occurs is unclear but could involve increased osmoreceptor sensitivity, altered stimulation of baroreceptors, the renin-angiotensin system, or altered central neural control.

Endothelin ETA receptor antagonism does not attenuate angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy in vivo in rats.

1. Angiotensin (Ang) II causes cardiac hypertrophy in vitro and in vivo. It also stimulates the release of endothelin (ET)-1. Endothelin-1 induces hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes in vitro. 2. In the present study, we examined whether the cardiac hypertrophic action of AngII in vivo was mediated by ET-1 via ETA receptors. We also determined whether arginine vasopressin (AVP), another ET-1 stimulator, could cause cardiac hypertrophy in vivo through an ET-1-dependent pathway. 3. In Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 8 per group), we determined whether the orally administered ETA receptor antagonist BMS 193884 could attenuate the cardiac hypertrophic effect of: (i) i.v. AngII infusion at either 100 or 200 ng/kg per min, i.v., for 1 week; (ii) AngII infusion at 100 ng/kg per min, i.v., for 2 weeks; and (iii) AVP infusion at either 2 or 10 ng/kg per min, i.v., for 1 week. Mean arterial pressure and heart rate were also measured. 4. Infusion with AngII for both 1 and 2 weeks increased left ventricular weight. Only AngII infusion at 200 ng/kg per min for 1 week increased blood pressure. Endothelin ETA receptor blockade did not attenuate the left ventricular hypertrophy, even though it reduced the hypertensive effect of AngII. Arginine vasopressin increased blood pressure, but did not cause cardiac hypertrophy. 5. We showed that AngII can cause cardiac hypertrophy through a direct, blood pressure-independent effect on the heart. Endothelin-1 did not mediate the cardiac hypertrophic effect of AngII through ETA receptors. This may indicate the involvement of ETB receptors in this model of cardiac hypertrophy. Arginine vasopressin did not cause cardiac hypertrophy in vivo.

Prostaglandin F2 alpha mediates platelet-activating factor-stimulated atrial natriuretic factor release from the isolated rat heart.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) and the prostaglandins have recently been shown to stimulate atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) secretion from the heart. As PAF also potentiates the release of cyclooxygenase products from isolated hearts, the role of these substances in PAF-induced ANF secretion was investigated. Using an isolated perfused rat heart preparation, cyclooxygenase inhibition by indomethacin or meclofenamic acid (10 microM for each) significantly attenuated the rise in ANF associated with PAF administration (2.5 nmol). Prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF) produced an immediate and dose-dependent increase in ANF secretion, which was significant at 0.01 mumol and reached 348 +/- 66% over baseline values after a 1-mumol injection. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE) generated a much smaller 98 +/- 25% increase after a 1-mumol administration. Furthermore, PGF but not PGE was released from isolated hearts immediately after PAF administration. PGF release reached a maximum of 0.06 nmol/min g Heart-1 1 min after PAF stimulation and had returned to undetectable baseline values by 6 min. Cyclooxygenase inhibition abolished the release of PGF after PAF, in addition to attenuating (by 60-70%) the increased secretion of ANF after PAF injection. These results demonstrate very clearly that PGF is the major mediator for PAF-stimulated ANF secretion. Such an interaction may provide an alternative mechanism to atrial distension for the secretion of ANF in pathologies such as myocardial infarction, where autacoids such as PAF and the PGs are released from damaged cardiac muscle and elevated plasma levels of ANF are observed.

Effect of ischaemia and role of eicosanoids in release of atrial natriuretic factor from rat heart.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to investigate (1) the relationship between atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) release and the extent of ischaemia-hypoxia, and (2) the potential role of eicosanoids in ANF release during global ischaemia, particularly the cyclo-oxygenase derivatives (prostaglandins) and the lipoxygenase derivatives (leukotrienes). METHODS: Using an isolated perfused, spontaneously beating rat heart, global ischaemia was achieved by the reduction of perfusion flow rate relative to basal flow rate. ANF was measured by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: A decrease in perfusion flow rate by 75-80% to a final value of 2-2.5 ml.min-1.g-1 heart (n = 6) caused a gradual but sustained increase of ANF release which reached a plateau after 12 min, attaining a peak value of 89.9 (SEM 26.6)% over baseline. A decrease in perfusion flow rate by 55-60% (n = 5) also resulted in an increased ANF secretion, with a peak of 125.6(23.2)% over baseline at 14 min. A decrease in perfusion flow rate by 25-30% to a final value of 5-6.75 ml.min-1.g-1 heart (n = 4) showed no change in ANF release. The mean basal value of ANF release was 8.23(2.39) ng.min-1.g-1 heart (n = 26). In a separate series of experiments using a reduction of 55-60% in perfusion flow rate but with the addition to the perfusion medium of the specific cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor meclofenamate 10 microM (n = 5) or the lipoxygenase inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid 10 microM (n = 5), no increase in ANF release occurred during the period of global ischaemia. Neither inhibitor affected ANF release during basal perfusion rates (7-9 ml.min-1.g-1 heart). CONCLUSIONS: ANF released in response to global ischaemia is likely to be mediated by prostanoids generated via the cyclo-oxygenase pathway and leukotrienes generated via the lipoxygenase pathway. Both pathways may provide important paracrine/autacoid regulatory roles for the protection of the heart during ischaemia by stimulating ANF release, with the subsequent beneficial effects of the peptide on peripheral tissues, ultimately leading to a reduction in load on the heart.

Atrial natriuretic factor release during rapid ventricular pacing: interplay between autonomic and hemodynamic stimulants.

Plasma levels of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) and norepinephrine are markedly elevated during episodes of ventricular tachycardia. Although atrial distention appears to be the major stimulus for ANF release, reflex changes in autonomic tone might also contribute. Plasma ANF and norepinephrine levels, sinus node cycle length, systolic blood pressure, and mean right atrial pressure were therefore assessed during rapid right ventricular pacing at 150 beats/min for 10 minutes. In five patients (group 1) observations were made without autonomic blockade, and another five patients (group 2) had ventricular pacing after cardiac autonomic blockade. In group 1 systolic blood pressure fell during ventricular pacing from 122 +/- 4 to 105 +/- 5 mm Hg (p < 0.02), norepinephrine levels increased from 195 +/- 26 to 411 +/- 71 pg/ml (p < 0.02), and sinus node cycle length decreased from 936 +/- 99 to 688 +/- 58 msec (p < 0.02). Right atrial pressure was elevated from 2.6 +/- 0.6 to 7.4 +/- 0.6 mm Hg (p < 0.02), and ANF levels increased from 161 +/- 23 to 240 +/- 26 pg/ml (p < 0.05). Whereas systolic blood pressure, norepinephrine, sinus cycle length, and right atrial pressure returned promptly to baseline levels when ventricular pacing was stopped, ANF levels continued to rise (296 +/- 37 pg/ml; p < 0.05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Platelet-activating factor stimulates the release of atrial natriuretic factor from the rat heart.

Atrial natriuretic factor (alpha-ANF (99-126), ANF) is released from atrial cells following atrial distension, myocardial infarction and periods of ischaemic or tachyarrhythmias. In this report we demonstrate that platelet-activating factor (PAF) stimulates ANF release from the isolated perfused rat heart and following i.v. injection to conscious unrestrained rats. ANF release peaked at 145% above baseline following injection of 2.5 nmol PAF into the isolated heart while administration of 2 nmol in vivo produced a 135% increase in plasma ANF levels. The PAF receptor antagonist BN52021 (10 mumol/l) attenuated this stimulated release, with the results suggesting a role for PAF in ANF secretion following release from damaged myocardium or as a humoral factor originating from the kidney.

Concentrations of plasma atrial natriuretic factor during and after reversion of ventricular tachycardia.

Plasma concentrations of immunoreactive atrial natriuretic factor were considerably increased (mean 745 (376) pg/ml) in 15 patients during spontaneous ventricular tachycardia. There was no significant relation, however, between concentrations of plasma atrial natriuretic factor and systolic arterial blood pressure during tachycardia. Samples taken 30 minutes and 24 hours after reversion of ventricular tachycardia to sinus rhythm showed that, although plasma concentrations of atrial natriuretic factor had fallen significantly, they were still raised after 24 hours. Raised concentrations of atrial natriuretic factor during ventricular tachycardia did not seem to contribute significantly to the hypotension that is often associated with the arrhythmia.

Activation of 5-HT 1 serotonin receptors in the medial basal hypothalamus stimulates prolactin secretion in the unanaesthetized rat.

Prolactin concentrations were measured in plasma in unanaesthetized male rats chronically prepared with venous and intracerebral cannulae, before and after treatment with bilateral intracerebral injections of serotonin and fenfluramine. Serotonin 1, 5, and 10 nmol injected in the medial basal hypothalamus caused dose-related rises in prolactin concentrations. The secretion of prolactin was blocked by metergoline (2.5 mg/kg i.p.) and only partially by ketanserin (2.0 mg/kg i.v.). The 5-HT 1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT potently stimulated prolactin at doses of 1 and 5 nmol. Fenfluramine 10 and 100 nmol also caused increases in plasma prolactin when injected in the basal hypothalamus. Prolactin secretion was also evoked by serotonin injections in the preoptic/anterior hypothalamic area, but the response was not blocked by serotonin receptor antagonists. It is concluded that activation of 5-HT 1A receptors on or near prolactin-regulating neurons in the arcuate nucleus causes secretion of prolactin. The effectiveness of fenfluramine in increasing plasma prolactin suggests that endogenous serotonin released from terminals in the basal hypothalamus may mediate prolactin secretion physiologically.

Noradrenaline, by activation of alpha-1-adrenoceptors in the region of the supraoptic nucleus, causes secretion of vasopressin in the unanaesthetized rat.

In unanaesthetized rats chronically prepared with venous and intracerebral cannulae, noradrenaline injected into the region of the supraoptic nuclei caused a dose-dependent increase in plasma vasopressin, measured by radioimmunoassay. A similar response was obtained with phenylephrine, but not with either clonidine or isoprenaline. The secretion of vasopressin was not secondary to change in arterial pressure, since similar injections of noradrenaline resulted in a small increase in arterial pressure, measured in the anaesthetized rat. These results suggest that noradrenaline stimulates alpha-1-adrenoceptors, presumably located on vasopressin-secreting neurones, thereby causing these cells to secrete vasopressin into the circulation. Tyramine injections also resulted in a prompt elevation in plasma vasopressin, indicating that endogenous noradrenaline is capable of releasing vasopressin.

Activation of serotonin receptors in the medial basal hypothalamus stimulates growth hormone secretion in the unanesthetized rat.

In conscious rats, serotonin microinjected into the basal hypothalamus caused secretion of GH maximal within 10-25 min. The effects of serotonin on GH were blocked by the non-selective serotonin receptor blocker, metergoline 2.5 mg/kg, but not by the serotonin type 2 receptor blocker, ketanserine 0.2 mg/kg. Injections of serotonin in the preoptic/anterior hypothalamic area were without effect. It is concluded that activation of serotonin receptors, probably type I, on or near GH releasing factor neurons in the arcuate nucleus causes secretion of GH and that serotonin has no direct effect on or near somatostatin neurons in the preoptic anterior hypothalamic area.

Activation of GABA receptors in the hypothalamus stimulates secretion of growth hormone and prolactin.

Localized intracerebral microinjections of GABA, muscimol, picrotoxin and bicuculline were made in the anterior and basal hypothalamus to determine possible sites of action of GABA in the regulation of prolactin and growth hormone (GH) secretion. Studies were carried out in unanesthetized male rats with chronic indwelling atrial cannulae and intracerebral guide cannulae which permitted stress free blood sampling and intrahypothalamic injections, respectively. Preoptic/anterior hypothalamic area. (PO/AHA) injection of muscimol (0.16 nmol) stimulated both prolactin and GH secretion. GABA (1600 nmol) stimulated prolactin. Bicuculline (0.016 and 0.16 nmol) inhibited GH secretion. Medial basal hypothalamic (MBH) injection of muscimol (0.1 and 1.0 nmol) and GABA (1000 nmol) stimulated prolactin but had no effect on GH secretion. Picrotoxin and bicuculline did not stimulate GH. These findings indicate that activation of PO/AHA GABAergic receptors facilitates secretion of GH and prolactin and activation of MBH GABAergic receptors stimulates secretion of prolactin. It is proposed that GABA inhibits somatostatin neurons in the PO/AHA to facilitate GH and inhibits tuberoinfundibular dopamine or GABA neurons in the MBH to stimulate prolactin.

Adrenoceptors in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area stimulate secretion of prolactin but not growth hormone in the male rat.

Plasma growth hormone (GH) and prolactin concentrations were measured by radioimmunoassay in unanesthetized male rats after stereotaxic microinjection of adrenergic agents and 6-hydroxydopamine into the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area (PO/AHA). Norepinephrine, epinephrine, isoprenaline and clonidine failed to stimulate GH, moreover, 16 nanomoles norepinephrine produced a decrease. However, these agents stimulated prolactin secretion and the mixed alpha antagonist phentolamine, administered systemically, inhibited the stimulatory action of epinephrine on prolactin secretion. GH and prolactin secretory patterns were not affected by 6-hydroxydopamine disruption of catecholamine terminals in the PO/AHA. GH responses to adrenergic agonists and the failure of 6-hydroxydopamine to affect GH secretory patterns indicate that PO/AHA norepinephrine afferents do not facilitate GH secretion. Taken in conjunction with previous studies, the results suggest that there must be an extra-hypothalamic site at which norepinephrine is stimulatory for GH. Prolactin responses suggest that alpha adrenoceptors in the PO/AHA may participate in prolactin secretion.

Growth hormone and prolactin secretion in genetically obese Zucker rats.

GH and PRL levels were measured by RIA in plasma samples taken from genetically obese and nonobese rats over a 6-h period at consecutive 15-min intervals. The mean GH level was 204 ng/ml for lean animals and 48 ng/ml for obese rats; the difference is significant (t = 5.8; P less than 0.01). For the group of 5 lean rats, there were 10 GH peaks that exceeded the upper limit of the assay (800 ng/ml), whereas for the group of 6 obese rats, there were only 2 peaks that exceeded the upper limit. In some of the obese rats, peaks of very small amplitude were present. No differences were seen in PRL levels. The mean plasma PRL level was 3.6 ng/ml for lean animals and 3.3 ng/ml for obese rats. Abnormalities in GH in obese rats may be related to an imbalance between hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors or a defect in the pituitary.

Responses to prolactin secretagogues in oestrogen-treated rats suggest that the defect in prolactin regulation produced by oestrogen is at the level of the pituitary gland.

Prolactin responses to pharmacological agents were used to characterize the defect in prolactin regulation which occurs after administration of high doses of oestrogen to rats. Animals with chronically implanted venous cannulae were injected with 2 mg oestradiol benzoate in oil and 2-3 days later prolactin concentrations were measured after injections of saline, thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH), fenfluramine, apomorphine and butaclamol. The responses were compared with those in oil-injected animals. Hyperprolactinaemia in oestrogen-treated animals was unresponsive to apomorphine, but was even more sensitive to dopamine receptor blockade than controls. These results suggest that the lactotrophs in oestrogen-treated animals are already maximally suppressed by endogenous dopamine, though ineffectively. Although there was an increased prolactin response to TRH in oestrogen-treated animals, there was an impaired response to fenfluramine, indicating suppressed serotonergic prolactin-releasing factor mechanisms. Maximal endogenous dopaminergic activity and suppressed prolactin-releasing factor mechanisms are appropriate hypothalamic responses to hyperprolactinaemia. The operation of these responses in the earliest stages of the development of pituitary hyperplasia indicates that oestrogen induces a disturbance of prolactin regulation in the lactotroph, independent of hypothalamic control.

Sustained oestrogen-induced hyperprolactinaemia results from a pituitary defect.

Pituitary enlargement and hyperprolactinaemia were induced in male rats by a single subcutaneous injection of 2 mg oestradiol benzoate in oil. Two months after treatment, when oestrogen levels were normal, serial blood samples for determination of plasma concentrations of prolactin were obtained from undisturbed animals through an indwelling right atrial cannula which had been implanted 7-10 days before. Basal concentrations of prolactin were obtained in treated and control rats, and responses of prolactin to intravenous injections of thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH), apomorphine, butaclamol and fenfluramine were measured. Sustained hyperprolactinaemia with pituitary hyperplasia was achieved in only 20% of animals. Responses of prolactin to TRH were the same in control, oestrogen-treated hyperprolactinaemic and non-hyperprolactinaemic rats, indicating normal pituitary responsiveness to one prolactin releasing factor. Complete suppression of prolactin concentrations by apomorphine occurred in hyperprolactinaemic animals, whereas no suppression could be demonstrated in animals with normal (low) basal prolactin levels, indicating good responsiveness of hyperplastic pituitary glands to dopamine inhibition. Dopamine receptor blockade by butaclamol resulted in a vigorous prolactin response in animals with sustained hyperprolactinaemia, indicating that dopaminergic prolactin inhibitory mechanisms remain qualitatively intact, but the response was quantitatively less than in controls, suggesting insufficient hypothalamic release of dopamine. Responses of prolactin to certain doses of fenfluramine were completely abolished in hyperprolactinaemic animals, indicating diminished sensitivity to serotoninergic prolactin releasing factor mechanisms. Prolactin releasing factor unresponsiveness and relative insufficiency of dopaminergic activity could be regarded as physiologically appropriate responses to chronic hyperprolactinaemia. Thus oestrogen-induced chronic hyperprolactinaemia appears to be entirely of pituitary origin.

Evidence that the regulation of growth hormone secretion is mediated predominantly by a growth hormone releasing factor.

Spontaneous pulsatile growth hormone (GH) secretion and stress-induced suppression of GH was examined in chronically cannulated male rats with electrolytic lesions of the periventricular preoptic anterior hypothalamic area (PO/AHA) where somatostatin neurons innervating the median eminence are known to be located. Median eminence somatostatin was depleted in lesioned animals by 85%. Bursts of GH secretion occurred more frequently than in sham-lesioned animals (1.9 +/- 0.2 vs. 2.6 +/- 0.2 h, respectively, p less than 0.025), however, average concentrations of GH were reduced by lesions (118.4 +/- 11.6 vs 192.3 +/- 28.4 ng/ml, p less than 0.025). Suppression of GH by stress was unaffected by PO/AHA lesions. It is concluded that somatostatin plays only minor roles in the generation of GH troughs during rhythmic GH secretion, and in the suppression of GH during stress. Inhibition of GH releasing factor secretion, therefore, is presumed to be the likely method by which GH suppression is achieved in these physiological situations.

Catecholamine mechanisms in medio-basal hypothalamus influence prolactin but not growth hormone secretion.

Medio-basal hypothalamic (MBH) catecholamine mechanisms in the regulation of prolactin and growth hormone (GH) secretion were investigated in unanesthetized rats with chronic indwelling venous cannulae and bilateral MBH directed intracerebral guide cannulae. MBH injections of the catecholamine-specific neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA; 2 micrograms base in 0.5 microliter 0.9% saline) had no effect upon basal prolactin or GH secretion. Examination of catecholamine fluorescence indicated that MBH 6-OHDA treatment produced widespread disruption of MBH catecholamine afferents but did not destroy tuberoinfundibular dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus, nor median eminence catecholamine structures. MBH injections (0.5 microliter, 0.032 M solutions) of dopamine, noradrenaline or adrenaline all produced statistically significant increases in plasma prolactin levels. The potency of these 3 catecholamines in evoking prolactin release differed markedly, adrenaline having the greatest effect. MBH catecholamine injections had no effect upon plasma GH levels compared to saline injected controls. The present data suggest that MBH catecholamine afferents are unimportant in the regulation of basal patterns of GH or prolactin secretion. As MBH catecholamine injections stimulate prolactin release this region may contain a prolactin-facilitatory catecholamine mechanism which is capable of generating prolactin surges in response to certain environmental or endogenous stimuli.

Function of serotonin in physiologic secretion of growth hormone and prolactin: action of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine, fenfluramine and p-chlorophenylalanine.

Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin secretory patterns in male rats chronically implanted with venous cannulae were studied in response to treatments known to acutely or chronically deplete central serotonin (5-HT) or to permanently destroy a high proportion of 5-HT neural structures. Spontaneous prolactin secretion was little affected by chronic 5-HT depletion produced by 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) or parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA). Acute 5-HT release induced by fenfluramine produced sustained prolactin secretion in intact and 5-HT-depleted rats. GH secretion was inhibited by PCPA, and for 3 days following 5,7-DHT, but was normal by 7 and 21 days. Acute 5-HT release stimulated by fenfluramine unexpectedly inhibited GH in intact and 5-HT-depleted rats. It is concluded that 5-HT is a potent facilitatory neurotransmitter for prolactin; and it appears to have both facilitatory and inhibitory effects on GH. Recovery of GH secretory patterns within 7 days of 5,7-DHT treatment indicates that mechanisms act rapidly to compensate for depletion of 5-HT, and that it is difficult to achieve functional depletion of 5-HT for more than a few days.