Development of Stable Packaging and Producer Cell Lines for the Production of AAV Vectors.

Today, recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors represent the vector systems which are mostly used for in vivo gene therapy for the treatment of rare and less-rare diseases. Although most of the past developments have been performed by using a transfection-based method and more than half of the authorized rAAV-based treatments are based on transfection process, the tendency is towards the use of stable inducible packaging and producer cell lines because their use is much more straightforward and leads in parallel to reduction in the overall manufacturing costs. This article presents the development of HeLa cell-based packaging/producer cell lines up to their use for large-scale rAAV vector production, the more recent development of HEK293-based packaging and producer cell lines, as well as of packaging cell lines based on the use of Sf9 cells. The production features are presented in brief (where available), including vector titer, specific productivity, and full-to-empty particle ratio.

Monobac System-A Single Baculovirus for the Production of rAAV.

Large-scale manufacturing of rAAV is a bottleneck for the development of genetic disease treatments. The baculovirus/Sf9 cell system underpins the first rAAV treatment approved by EMA and remains one of the most advanced platforms for rAAV manufacturing. Despite early successes, rAAV is still a complex biomaterial to produce. Efficient production of the recombinant viral vector requires that AAV replicase and capsid genes be co-located with the recombinant AAV genome. Here, we present the Monobac system, a singular, modified baculovirus genome that contains all of these functions. To assess the relative yields between the dual baculovirus and Monobac systems, we prepared each system with a transgene encoding γSGC and evaluated vectors' potency in vivo. Our results show that rAAV production using the Monobac system not only yields higher titers of rAAV vector but also a lower amount of DNA contamination from baculovirus.

Toward a Scalable Purification Protocol of GaLV-TR-Pseudotyped Lentiviral Vectors.

Lentiviral vectors (LV) that are used in research and development as well as in clinical trials are in majority vesicular stomatitis virus G glycoprotein (VSVg) pseudotyped. The predominance of this pseudotype choice for clinical gene therapy studies is largely due to a lack of purification schemes for pseudotypes other than VSVg. In this study, we report for the first time the development of a new downstream process protocol allowing high-yield production of stable and infectious gibbon ape leukemia virus (GaLV)-TR-LV particles. We identified critical conditions in tangential flow filtration (TFF) and chromatographic steps for preserving the infectivity/functionality of LV during purification. This was carried out by identifying for each step, the critical parameters affecting LV infectivity, including pH, salinity, presence of stabilizers, temperature, and by defining the optimal order of these steps. A three-step process was developed for GaLV-TR-LV purification consisting of one TFF and two chromatographic steps (ion-exchange chromatography and size exclusion chromatography) permitting recoveries of >27% of infectious particles. With this process, purified GaLV-pseudotyped LV enabled the transduction of 70% human CD34+ cells in the presence of the Vectofusin-1 peptide, whereas in the same conditions nonpurified vector transduced only 9% of the cells (multiplicity of infection 20). Our protocol will allow for the first time the purification of GaLV-TR-LV that are biologically active, stable, and with sufficient recovery in the perspective of preclinical studies and clinical applications. Obviously, further optimizations are required to improve final vector yields.

Origins of truncated supplementary capsid proteins in rAAV8 vectors produced with the baculovirus system.

The ability to produce large quantities of recombinant Adeno-Associated Virus (rAAV) vectors is an important factor for the development of gene therapy-based medicine. The baculovirus/insect cell expression system is one of the major systems for large scale rAAV production. So far, most technological developments concerned the optimization of the AAV rep and cap genes in order to be expressed correctly in a heterologous system. However, the effect of the baculovirus infection on the production of rAAV has not been examined in detail. In this study we show that the baculoviral cathepsin (v-CATH) protease is active on several (but not all) rAAV serotypes, leading to a partial degradation of VP1/VP2 proteins. Subsequently, we identified the principal v-CATH cleavage site in the rAAV8 capsid proteins and demonstrated that the cleavage is highly specific. The proteolytic degradation of VP1/VP2 AAV capsid proteins reduces the infectivity of rAAV vectors but can be prevented by the use of a baculovirus vector with a deletion of the chiA/v-cath locus or by addition of the E64 protease inhibitor during production. Moreover, the codon optimization of AAV cap performed for several serotypes and originally aimed at the removal of potential alternative initiation codons, resulted in incorporation of additional forms of truncated VP1 into the rAAV capsids.

Genetics instability of wtAAV2 genome and AAV promoter activities in the Baculovirus/Sf9 cells system.

The human Adeno-Associated Virus serotype 2 (wtAAV2) is a common non-pathological virus and its recombinant form (rAAV) is widely used as gene therapy vector. Although rAAVs are routinely produced in the Baculovirus/Sf9 cell system, wtAAV2 has never been studied in this context. We tried to produce wtAAV2 in the baculovirus/Sf9 cell system hypothesizing that the wtAAV2 may be considered as a normal recombinant AAV transgene. Through our attempts to produce wtAAV2 in Baculovirus/Sf9, we found that wtAAV2 p5 promoter, which controls the expression of large Rep proteins in mammalian cells, was active in this system. p5 promoter activity in the baculovirus/Sf9 cell system leads to the expression of Rep78 that finally excises wtAAV2 genome from the baculovirus genome during the earliest phases of baculovirus stock production. Via p5 promoter expression kinetics and strand specific RNA-Seq analysis of wtAAV2, rAAV and Rep2/Cap2 cassettes in the baculovirus context we could demonstrate that wtAAV2 native promoters, p5, p19 and p40 are all active in the context of the baculovirus system and lead to the expression of different proteins and peptides. In addition, this study has proven that the baculovirus brings at least some of the helper functions needed in the AAV replication/life cycle.

Impact of Inverted Terminal Repeat Integrity on rAAV8 Production Using the Baculovirus/Sf9 Cells System.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) are key elements of AAV. These guanine-cytosine-rich structures are involved in the replication and encapsidation of the AAV genome, along with its integration in and excision from the host genome. These sequences are the only AAV-derived DNA sequences conserved in recombinant AAV (rAAV), as they allow its replication, encapsidation, and long-term maintenance and expression in target cells. Due to the original vector design, plasmids containing the gene of interest flanked by ITRs and used for rAAV production often present incomplete, truncated, or imperfect ITR sequences. For example, pSUB201 and its derivatives harbor a truncated (14 nt missing on the external part of the ITR), flop-orientated ITR plus 46 bp of non-ITR viral DNA at each end of the rAAV genome. It has been shown that rAAV genomes can be replicated, even with incomplete, truncated, or imperfect ITR sequences, leading to the production of rAAV vectors in transfection experiments. Nonetheless, it was hypothesized that unmodified wild-type (WT) ITR sequences could lead to a higher yield of rAAV, with less non-rAAV encapsidated DNA originating from the production cells and/or baculovirus shuttle vector genomes. This work studied the impact of imperfect ITRs on the level of encapsidated rAAV genomes and baculovirus-derived DNA sequences using the baculovirus/Sf9 cells production system. Replacement of truncated ITRs with WT and additional wtAAV2 sequences has an impact on the two major features of rAAV production: (1) a rise from 10% to 40% of full capsids obtained, and (2) up to a 10-fold reduction in non-rAAV encapsidated DNA. Furthermore, this study considered the impact on these major parameters of additional ITR elements and ITRs coupled with various regulatory elements of different origins. Implementation of the use of complete ITRs in the frame of the baculovirus-based rAAV expression system is one step that will be required to optimize the quality of rAAV-based gene therapy drugs.

Production of lentiviral vectors.

Lentiviral vectors (LV) have seen considerably increase in use as gene therapy vectors for the treatment of acquired and inherited diseases. This review presents the state of the art of the production of these vectors with particular emphasis on their large-scale production for clinical purposes. In contrast to oncoretroviral vectors, which are produced using stable producer cell lines, clinical-grade LV are in most of the cases produced by transient transfection of 293 or 293T cells grown in cell factories. However, more recent developments, also, tend to use hollow fiber reactor, suspension culture processes, and the implementation of stable producer cell lines. As is customary for the biotech industry, rather sophisticated downstream processing protocols have been established to remove any undesirable process-derived contaminant, such as plasmid or host cell DNA or host cell proteins. This review compares published large-scale production and purification processes of LV and presents their process performances. Furthermore, developments in the domain of stable cell lines and their way to the use of production vehicles of clinical material will be presented.

Advanced Characterization of DNA Molecules in rAAV Vector Preparations by Single-stranded Virus Next-generation Sequencing.

Recent successful clinical trials with recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors (rAAVs) have led to a renewed interest in gene therapy. However, despite extensive developments to improve vector-manufacturing processes, undesirable DNA contaminants in rAAV preparations remain a major safety concern. Indeed, the presence of DNA fragments containing antibiotic resistance genes, wild-type AAV, and packaging cell genomes has been found in previous studies using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses. However, because qPCR only provides a partial view of the DNA molecules in rAAV preparations, we developed a method based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) to extensively characterize single-stranded DNA virus preparations (SSV-Seq). In order to validate SSV-Seq, we analyzed three rAAV vector preparations produced by transient transfection of mammalian cells. Our data were consistent with qPCR results and showed a quasi-random distribution of contaminants originating from the packaging cells genome. Finally, we found single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) along the vector genome but no evidence of large deletions. Altogether, SSV-Seq could provide a characterization of DNA contaminants and a map of the rAAV genome with unprecedented resolution and exhaustiveness. We expect SSV-Seq to pave the way for a new generation of quality controls, guiding process development toward rAAV preparations of higher potency and with improved safety profiles.

Advances in cell culture: anchorage dependence.

Anchorage-dependent cells are of great interest for various biotechnological applications. (i) They represent a formidable production means of viruses for vaccination purposes at very large scales (in 1000-6000 l reactors) using microcarriers, and in the last decade many more novel viral vaccines have been developed using this production technology. (ii) With the advent of stem cells and their use/potential use in clinics for cell therapy and regenerative medicine purposes, the development of novel culture devices and technologies for adherent cells has accelerated greatly with a view to the large-scale expansion of these cells. Presently, the really scalable systems--microcarrier/microcarrier-clump cultures using stirred-tank reactors--for the expansion of stem cells are still in their infancy. Only laboratory scale reactors of maximally 2.5 l working volume have been evaluated because thorough knowledge and basic understanding of critical issues with respect to cell expansion while retaining pluripotency and differentiation potential, and the impact of the culture environment on stem cell fate, etc., are still lacking and require further studies. This article gives an overview on critical issues common to all cell culture systems for adherent cells as well as specifics for different types of stem cells in view of small- and large-scale cell expansion and production processes.

Baculovirus VP1054 is an acquired cellular PURα, a nucleic acid-binding protein specific for GGN repeats.

Baculovirus VP1054 protein is a structural component of both of the virion types budded virus (BV) and occlusion-derived virus (ODV), but its exact role in virion morphogenesis is poorly defined. In this paper, we reveal sequence and functional similarity between the baculovirus protein VP1054 and the cellular purine-rich element binding protein PUR-alpha (PURα). The data strongly suggest that gene transfer has occurred from a host to an ancestral baculovirus. Deletion of the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) vp1054 gene completely prevented viral cell-to-cell spread. Electron microscopy data showed that assembly of progeny nucleocapsids is dramatically reduced in the absence of VP1054. More precisely, VP1054 is required for proper viral DNA encapsidation, as deduced from the formation of numerous electron-lucent capsid-like tubules. Complementary searching identified the presence of genetic elements composed of repeated GGN trinucleotide motifs in baculovirus genomes, the target sequence for PURα proteins. Interestingly, these GGN-rich sequences are disproportionally distributed in baculoviral genomes and mostly occurred in proximity to the gene for the major occlusion body protein polyhedrin. We further demonstrate that the VP1054 protein specifically recognizes these GGN-rich islands, which at the same time encode crucial proline-rich domains in p78/83, an essential gene adjacent to the polyhedrin gene in the AcMNPV genome. While some viruses, like human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and human JC virus (JCV), utilize host PURα protein, baculoviruses encode the PURα-like protein VP1054, which is crucial for viral progeny production.

Xyloglucan-derivatized films for the culture of adherent cells and their thermocontrolled detachment: a promising alternative to cells sensitive to protease treatment.

By taking advantage of a natural and abundant polymer as well as a straightforward film formation technique, this paper focuses on the conception and use of a new alternative tool for thermo-controlled cell detachment. Thermoresponsive xyloglucan was produced after partial galactose removal by a 24 h reaction with ß-galactosidase. The obtained polymer (T24) was then activated by reaction with 4-nitrophenyl chloroformate (NPC) in order to graft a cyclic peptide presenting an arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motif. The effect of RGD grafting on the sol-gel transition temperature of T24 is evaluated by rheological measurements. Solvent-casted films of T24-RGD successfully promoted cell adhesion, proliferation, and thermo-controlled detachment. The presented approach is a new alternative for cells sensitive to the proteolytic treatment routinely used for cell detachment. Because the RGD sequence used herein is widely recognized by different cell types, this protocol may be extended to other cells. Besides, the presented chemical route can be applied to different peptide sequences.

How can measurement, monitoring, modeling and control advance cell culture in industrial biotechnology?

This report highlights the potential of measurement, monitoring, modeling and control (M(3) C) methodologies in animal and human cell culture technology. In particular, state-of-the-art of M(3) C technologies and their industrial relevance of existing technology are addressed. It is a summary of an expert panel discussion between biotechnologists and biochemical engineers with both academic and industrial backgrounds. The latest ascents in M(3) C are discussed from a cell culture perspective for industrial process development and production needs. The report concludes with a set of recommendations for targeting M(3) C research toward the industrial interests. These include issues of importance for biotherapeutics production, miniaturization of measurement techniques and modeling methods.

Essential C-terminal region of the baculovirus minor capsid protein VP80 binds DNA.

The essential Autographa californica multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) minor capsid protein VP80 has been recently shown to interact with the virus-triggered, nuclear F-actin cytoskeleton. A role for VP80 in virus morphogenesis has been proposed in the maturation of progeny nucleocapsids and in their egress from the virogenic stroma toward the nuclear periphery by a mechanism, which also includes F-actin filaments. We performed functional mapping of VP80 demonstrating that its highly conserved C-terminal region plays a crucial role in virion morphogenesis. Protein database mining identified a putative basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain, a DNA-binding module typical for eukaryotic transcription factors, in the essential C-terminal region of VP80. Using a molecular modeling approach, we predicted the three-dimensional structure of this domain, revealing some unique properties. Biochemical assays proved that VP80 can form homodimers, a critical prerequisite of DNA-binding bHLH proteins. The ability of VP80 to bind DNA was subsequently confirmed by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. We further show that AcMNPV DNA replication occurs in the absence of VP80. Immunolabeling of VP80 in baculovirus-infected cells rather points toward its involvement in nucleocapsid maturation. The competence of VP80 to interact with both F-actin and DNA provides novel insight into baculovirus morphogenesis.

An initiative to manufacture and characterize baculovirus reference material.

This letter to the editor brings to the attention of researchers an initiative to develop a baculovirus reference material repository. To be successful this initiative needs the support of a broad panel of researchers working with baculovirus vectors for recombinant protein production and gene delivery for either therapy or vaccination. First there is a need to reach a consensus on the nature of the reference material, the production protocols and the baculovirus characterization methods. It will also be important to define repository and distribution procedures so that the reference material is available to any researcher for calibrating experimental data and to compare experiments performed in the various laboratories. As more and more baculovirus-based products are licensed or in the final stages of development, the development of a repository of baculovirus reference material is timely. This letter describes the requirements for the reference material and for the project as a whole to be successful and calls for a partnership that would involve academic, industrial laboratories and governmental organizations to support this international initiative.

Latest developments in the large-scale production of adeno-associated virus vectors in insect cells toward the treatment of neuromuscular diseases.

Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors are gene vectors of choice for the development of gene therapy treatments for many rare diseases affecting various tissues including retina, central nervous system, liver, and muscle. The AAV based gene therapy approach became conceivable only after the development of easily scalable production systems including the Sf9 cell/baculovirus expression system. Since the establishment of the production of AAV in the Sf9/baculovirus system by the group of Rob Kotin, this new production system has largely been developed for optimizing the large scale production of different serotypes of AAV for preclinical and clinical purposes. Today this manufacturing system allows for the production of purified vector genome (vg) quantities of up to 2 × 10(15) for AAV1 using a 50L reactor and the scale up to larger reactor volumes is paralleled by a corresponding increase in the vector yield. This review presents the principles and achievements of the Sf9/baculovirus system for the production of AAV in comparison to other expression systems based on mammalian cells. In addition, new developments and improvements, which have not yet been implemented at a large scale, and perspectives for further optimization of this production system will be discussed. All of these achievements as well as further process intensifications are urgently needed for the production of clinical doses for the treatment of neuromuscular diseases for which estimated doses of up to 10(14)vg/kg body mass are required.

Host cells and cell banking.

Gene therapy based on the use of viral vectors is entirely dependent on the use of animal cell lines, mainly of mammalian origin, but also of insect origin. As for any biotechnology product for clinical use, viral -vectors have to be produced with cells derived from an extensively characterized cell bank to maintain the appropriate standard for assuring the lowest risk for the patients to be treated. Although many different cell types and lines have been used for the production of viral vectors, HEK293 cells or their derivatives have been extensively used for production of different vector types: adenovirus, oncorectrovirus, lentivirus, and AAV vectors, because of their easy handling and the possibility to grow them adherently in serum-containing medium as well as in suspension in serum-free culture medium. Despite this, these cells are not necessarily the best for the production of a given viral vector, and there are many other cell lines with significant advantages including superior growth and/or production characteristics, which have been tested and also used for the production of clinical vector batches. This chapter presents basic -considerations concerning the characterization of cell banks, in the first part, and, in the second part, practically all cell lines (at least when public information was available) established and developed for the production of the most important viral vectors (adenoviral, oncoretroviral, lentiviral, AAV, baculovirus).

Adeno-associated viruses.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors have evolved over the past decade as a particularly useful gene -vector for in vivo applications. In contrast to oncoretro- and lentiviral vectors, this vector stays essentially episomal after gene transfer, making it safer because of the absence of insertional mutagenesis. AAV's non-pathogenicity is a further advantage. For decades, this vector could only be produced at a small scale for research purposes and, eventually, used at very small doses for clinical studies, because only transfection methods were available, which have limited scalability. However, since the development of scalable production methods, this bottleneck is resolved and, from a technical point of view, large quantities of AAV vectors can be produced, opening the possibility of using AAV vectors for whole body treatments in gene therapy trials. This chapter presents the basic principles of small- and large-scale production procedures as well as detailed procedure of small-scale production, purification, and analytical protocols for AAV vectors. In Chapter 10, the reader will find a large-scale production method based on the use of the insect cell/baculovirus system.

Baculovirus VP80 protein and the F-actin cytoskeleton interact and connect the viral replication factory with the nuclear periphery.

Recently, we showed that the Autographa californica multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) VP80 protein is essential for the formation of both virion types, budded virus (BV) and occlusion-derived virus (ODV). Deletion of the vp80 gene did not affect assembly of nucleocapsids. However, these nucleocapsids were not able to migrate from the virogenic stroma to the nuclear periphery. In the current paper, we constructed a baculovirus recombinant with enhanced-green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-tagged VP80, allowing visualization of the VP80 distribution pattern during infection. In baculovirus-infected cells, the EGFP-VP80 protein is entirely localized in nuclei, adjacent to the virus-triggered F-actin scaffold that forms a highly organized three-dimensional network connecting the virogenic stroma physically with the nuclear envelope. Interaction between VP80 and host actin was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation. We further showed that VP80 is associated with the nucleocapsid fraction of both BVs and ODVs, typically at one end of the nucleocapsids. In addition, the presence of sequence motifs with homology to invertebrate paramyosin proteins strongly supports a role for VP80 in the polar transport of nucleocapsids to the periphery of the nucleus on their way to the plasma membrane to form BVs and for assembly in the nuclear periphery to form ODVs for embedding in viral occlusion bodies.