Comparing the Colloidal Stabilities of Commercial and Biogenic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles That Have Potential In Vitro/In Vivo Applications.

For the potential in vitro/in vivo applications of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, their stability in different physiological fluids has to be ensured. This important prerequisite includes the preservation of the particles' stability during the envisaged application and, consequently, their invariance with respect to the transfer from storage conditions to cell culture media or even bodily fluids. Here, we investigate the colloidal stabilities of commercial nanoparticles with different coatings as a model system for biogenic iron oxide nanoparticles (magnetosomes) isolated from magnetotactic bacteria. We demonstrate that the stability can be evaluated and quantified by determining the intensity-weighted average of the particle sizes (Z-value) obtained from dynamic light scattering experiments as a simple quality criterion, which can also be used as an indicator for protein corona formation.

Long-Term Stability, Biocompatibility, and Magnetization of Suspensions of Isolated Bacterial Magnetosomes.

Magnetosomes are magnetic nanoparticles biosynthesized by magnetotactic bacteria. Due to a genetically strictly controlled biomineralization process, the ensuing magnetosomes have been envisioned as agents for biomedical and clinical applications. In the present work, different stability parameters of magnetosomes isolated from Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense upon storage in suspension (HEPES buffer, 4 °C, nitrogen atmosphere) for one year in the absence of antibiotics are examined. The magnetic potency, measured by the saturation magnetization of the particle suspension, drops to one-third of its starting value within this year-about ten times slower than at ambient air and room temperature. The particle size distribution, the integrity of the surrounding magnetosome membrane, the colloidal stability, and the biocompatibility turn out to be not severely affected by long-term storage.

A Magnetosome-Based Platform for Flow Biocatalysis.

Biocatalysis in flow reactor systems is of increasing importance for the transformation of the chemical industry. However, the necessary immobilization of biocatalysts remains a challenge. We here demonstrate that biogenic magnetic nanoparticles, so-called magnetosomes, represent an attractive alternative for the development of nanoscale particle formulations to enable high and stable conversion rates in biocatalytic flow processes. In addition to their intriguing material characteristics, such as high crystallinity, stable magnetic moments, and narrow particle size distribution, magnetosomes offer the unbeatable advantage over chemically synthesized nanoparticles that foreign protein "cargo" can be immobilized on the enveloping membrane via genetic engineering and thus, stably presented on the particle surface. To exploit these advantages, we develop a modular connector system in which abundant magnetosome membrane anchors are genetically fused with SpyCatcher coupling groups, allowing efficient covalent coupling with complementary SpyTag-functionalized proteins. The versatility of this approach is demonstrated by immobilizing a dimeric phenolic acid decarboxylase to SpyCatcher magnetosomes. The functionalized magnetosomes outperform similarly functionalized commercial particles by exhibiting stable substrate conversion during a 60 h period, with an average space-time yield of 49.2 mmol L-1 h-1. Overall, our results demonstrate that SpyCatcher magnetosomes significantly expand the genetic toolbox for particle surface functionalization and increase their application potential as nano-biocatalysts.

Biocompatibility, uptake and subcellular localization of bacterial magnetosomes in mammalian cells.

Magnetosomes represent biogenic, magnetic nanoparticles biosynthesized by magnetotactic bacteria. Subtle biological control on each step of biomineralization generates core-shell nanoparticles of high crystallinity, strong magnetization and uniform shape and size. These features make magnetosomes a promising alternative to chemically synthesized nanoparticles for many applications in the biotechnological and biomedical field, such as their usage as biosensors in medical diagnostics, as drug-delivery agents, or as contrast agents for magnetic imaging techniques. Thereby, the particles are directly applied to mammalian cells or even injected into the body. In the present work, we provide a comprehensive characterization of isolated magnetosomes as potential cytotoxic effects and particle uptake have not been well studied so far. Different cell lines including cancer cells and primary cells are incubated with increasing particle amounts, and effects on cell viability are investigated. Obtained data suggest a concentration-dependent biocompatibility of isolated magnetosomes for all tested cell lines. Furthermore, magnetosome accumulation in endolysosomal structures around the nuclei is observed. Proliferation rates are affected in the presence of increasing particle amounts; however, viability is not affected and doubling times can be restored by reducing the magnetosome concentration. In addition, we evidence magnetosome-cell interactions that are strong enough to allow for magnetic cell sorting. Overall, our study not only assesses the biocompatibility of isolated magnetosomes, but also evaluates effects on cell proliferation and the fate of internalized magnetosomes, thereby providing prerequisites for their future in vivo application as biomedical agents.

High-Yield Production, Characterization, and Functionalization of Recombinant Magnetosomes in the Synthetic Bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum "magneticum".

Recently, the photosynthetic Rhodospirillum rubrum has been endowed with the ability of magnetosome biosynthesis by transfer and expression of biosynthetic gene clusters from the magnetotactic bacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense. However, the growth conditions for efficient magnetite biomineralization in the synthetic R. rubrum "magneticum", as well as the particles themselves (i.e., structure and composition), have so far not been fully characterized. In this study, different cultivation strategies, particularly the influence of temperature and light intensity, are systematically investigated to achieve optimal magnetosome biosynthesis. Reduced temperatures ≤16 °C and gradual increase in light intensities favor magnetite biomineralization at high rates, suggesting that magnetosome formation might utilize cellular processes, cofactors, and/or pathways that are linked to photosynthetic growth. Magnetosome yields of up to 13.6 mg magnetite per liter cell culture are obtained upon photoheterotrophic large-scale cultivation. Furthermore, it is shown that even more complex, i.e., oligomeric, catalytically active functional moieties like enzyme proteins can be efficiently expressed on the magnetosome surface, thereby enabling the in vivo functionalization by genetic engineering. In summary, it is demonstrated that the synthetic R. rubrum "magneticum" is a suitable host for high-yield magnetosome biosynthesis and the sustainable production of genetically engineered, bioconjugated magnetosomes.

Induction of Axonal Outgrowth in Mouse Hippocampal Neurons via Bacterial Magnetosomes.

Magnetosomes are membrane-enclosed iron oxide crystals biosynthesized by magnetotactic bacteria. As the biomineralization of bacterial magnetosomes can be genetically controlled, they have become promising nanomaterials for bionanotechnological applications. In the present paper, we explore a novel application of magnetosomes as nanotool for manipulating axonal outgrowth via stretch-growth (SG). SG refers to the process of stimulation of axonal outgrowth through the application of mechanical forces. Thanks to their superior magnetic properties, magnetosomes have been used to magnetize mouse hippocampal neurons in order to stretch axons under the application of magnetic fields. We found that magnetosomes are avidly internalized by cells. They adhere to the cell membrane, are quickly internalized, and slowly degrade after a few days from the internalization process. Our data show that bacterial magnetosomes are more efficient than synthetic iron oxide nanoparticles in stimulating axonal outgrowth via SG.

Identification and elimination of genomic regions irrelevant for magnetosome biosynthesis by large-scale deletion in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense.

BACKGROUND: Magnetosome formation in the alphaproteobacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense is controlled by more than 30 known mam and mms genes clustered within a large genomic region, the 'magnetosome island' (MAI), which also harbors numerous mobile genetic elements, repeats, and genetic junk. Because of the inherent genetic instability of the MAI caused by neighboring gene content, the elimination of these regions and their substitution by a compact, minimal magnetosome expression cassette would be important for future analysis and engineering. In addition, the role of the MAI boundaries and adjacent regions are still unclear, and recent studies indicated that further auxiliary determinants for magnetosome biosynthesis are encoded outside the MAI. However, techniques for large-scale genome editing of magnetic bacteria are still limited, and the full complement of genes controlling magnetosome formation has remained uncertain. RESULTS: Here we demonstrate that an allelic replacement method based on homologous recombination can be applied for large-scale genome editing in M. gryphiswaldense. By analysis of 24 deletion mutants covering about 167 kb of non-redundant genome content, we identified genes and regions inside and outside the MAI irrelevant for magnetosome biosynthesis. A contiguous stretch of ~ 100 kb, including the scattered mam and mms6 operons, could be functionally substituted by a compact and contiguous ~ 38 kb cassette comprising all essential biosynthetic gene clusters, but devoid of interspersing irrelevant or problematic gene content. CONCLUSIONS: Our results further delineate the genetic complement for magnetosome biosynthesis and will be useful for future large-scale genome editing and genetic engineering of magnetosome biosynthesis.

Towards a 'chassis' for bacterial magnetosome biosynthesis: genome streamlining of Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense by multiple deletions.

BACKGROUND: Because of its tractability and straightforward cultivation, the magnetic bacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense has emerged as a model for the analysis of magnetosome biosynthesis and bioproduction. However, its future use as platform for synthetic biology and biotechnology will require methods for large-scale genome editing and streamlining. RESULTS: We established an approach for combinatory genome reduction and generated a library of strains in which up to 16 regions including large gene clusters, mobile genetic elements and phage-related genes were sequentially removed, equivalent to ~ 227.6 kb and nearly 5.5% of the genome. Finally, the fragmented genomic magnetosome island was replaced by a compact cassette comprising all key magnetosome biosynthetic gene clusters. The prospective 'chassis' revealed wild type-like cell growth and magnetosome biosynthesis under optimal conditions, as well as slightly improved resilience and increased genetic stability. CONCLUSION: We provide first proof-of-principle for the feasibility of multiple genome reduction and large-scale engineering of magnetotactic bacteria. The library of deletions will be valuable for turning M. gryphiswaldense into a microbial cell factory for synthetic biology and production of magnetic nanoparticles.

Towards standardized purification of bacterial magnetic nanoparticles for future in vivo applications.

Bacterial magnetosomes (MS) are well-defined membrane-enveloped single-domain iron oxide (magnetite) nanoparticles, which are susceptible to genetic and chemical engineering. Additionally, the possibility to manipulate these particles by external magnetic fields facilitates their application in biomedicine and biotechnology, e.g. as magnetic resonance imaging probes or for drug delivery purposes. However, current purification protocols are poorly characterized, thereby hampering standardized and reproducible magnetosome production and thus, reliable testing for in vivo applications. In that context, the establishment of reproducible particle isolation procedures as well as the identification of high quality control parameters and the evaluation of potential cytotoxic effects of purified particles are of major importance. In this study, we characterize a multi-step purification protocol for MS with regard to purity, iron content, size and polydispersity of magnetite particles. In addition, we address potential cytotoxic effects of isolated MS when incubated with mammalian cells. Overall, we provide a detailed overview of the process-structure relationship during the isolation of MS and thus, identify prerequisites for high-yield MS production and their future application in the biomedical and biotechnological field. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Magnetic nanoparticles are of increasing interest for a variety of biomedical and biotechnological applications. Due to their unprecedented material characteristics, bacterial magnetosomes represent a promising alternative to chemically synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles. As applications require well-defined, highly purified and fully characterized nanoparticles, reliable protocols are necessary for efficient and reproducible magnetosome isolation. In our study, we evaluate an improved magnetosome extraction procedure and monitor quality parameters such as particle size distribution, membrane integrity and purity of the suspension by a combination of physicochemical and biochemical methods. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of the isolated magnetosomes is assessed using different cell lines. In summary, our study helps to establish prerequisites for many real-world applications of magnetosomes in the field of biotechnology and biomedicine.

Genome-Wide Identification of Essential and Auxiliary Gene Sets for Magnetosome Biosynthesis in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense.

Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) stand out by their ability to manufacture membrane-enclosed magnetic organelles, so-called magnetosomes. Previously, it has been assumed that a genomic region of approximately 100 kbp, the magnetosome island (MAI), harbors all genetic determinants required for this intricate biosynthesis process. Recent evidence, however, argues for the involvement of additional auxiliary genes that have not been identified yet. In the present study, we set out to delineate the full gene complement required for magnetosome production in the alphaproteobacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense using a systematic genome-wide transposon mutagenesis approach. By an optimized procedure, a Tn5 insertion library of 80,000 clones was generated and screened, yielding close to 200 insertants with mild to severe impairment of magnetosome biosynthesis. Approximately 50% of all Tn5 insertion sites mapped within the MAI, mostly leading to a nonmagnetic phenotype. In contrast, in the majority of weakly magnetic Tn5 insertion mutants, genes outside the MAI were affected, which typically caused lower numbers of magnetite crystals with partly aberrant morphology, occasionally combined with deviant intracellular localization. While some of the Tn5-struck genes outside the MAI belong to pathways that have been linked to magnetosome formation before (e.g., aerobic and anaerobic respiration), the majority of affected genes are involved in so far unsuspected cellular processes, such as sulfate assimilation, oxidative protein folding, and cytochrome c maturation, or are altogether of unknown function. We also found that signal transduction and redox functions are enriched in the set of Tn5 hits outside the MAI, suggesting that such processes are particularly important in support of magnetosome biosynthesis.IMPORTANCE Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense is one of the few tractable model magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) for studying magnetosome biomineralization. So far, knowledge on the genetic determinants of this complex process has been mainly gathered using reverse genetics and candidate approaches. In contrast, nontargeted forward genetics studies are lacking, since application of such techniques in MTB has been complicated for a number of technical reasons. Here, we report on the first comprehensive transposon mutagenesis study in MTB, aiming at systematic identification of auxiliary genes necessary to support magnetosome formation in addition to key genes harbored in the magnetosome island (MAI). Our work considerably extends the candidate set of novel subsidiary determinants and shows that the full gene complement underlying magnetosome biosynthesis is larger than assumed. In particular, we were able to define certain cellular pathways as specifically important for magnetosome formation that have not been implicated in this process so far.

Bacterial Magnetosomes as Novel Platform for the Presentation of Immunostimulatory, Membrane-Bound Ligands in Cellular Biotechnology.

Cell-cell interactions involving specific membrane proteins are critical triggers in cellular development. Ex vivo strategies to mimic these effects currently use soluble proteins or (recombinant) presenter cells, albeit with mixed results. A promising alternative are bacterial magnetosomes, which can be selectively transformed into cell-free membrane-protein presenters by genetic engineering. In this study, the human CD40 Ligand (CD40L), a key ligand for B cell activation, is expressed on the particle surface. Functionality is demonstrated on sensor cells expressing the human CD40 receptor. Binding of CD40L magnetosomes to these cells triggers a signaling cascade leading to the secretion of embryonic alkaline phosphatase. Concomitantly, the CD40-CD40L interaction is strong enough to allow cell recovery by magnetic sorting. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of magnetosomes as promising cell-free tools for cellular biotechnology, based on the display of membrane-bound target molecules, thereby creating a biomimetic interaction.

A Versatile Toolkit for Controllable and Highly Selective Multifunctionalization of Bacterial Magnetic Nanoparticles.

Their unique material characteristics, i.e. high crystallinity, strong magnetization, uniform shape and size, and the ability to engineer the enveloping membrane in vivo make bacterial magnetosomes highly interesting for many biomedical and biotechnological applications. In this study, a versatile toolkit is developed for the multifunctionalization of magnetic nanoparticles in the magnetotactic bacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense, and the use of several abundant magnetosome membrane proteins as anchors for functional moieties is explored. High-level magnetosome display of cargo proteins enables the generation of engineered nanoparticles with several genetically encoded functionalities, including a core-shell structure, magnetization, two different catalytic activities, fluorescence and the presence of a versatile connector that allows the incorporation into a hydrogel-based matrix by specific coupling reactions. The resulting reusable magnetic composite demonstrates the high potential of synthetic biology for the production of multifunctional nanomaterials, turning the magnetosome surface into a platform for specific versatile display of functional moieties.

Probing the Nanostructure and Arrangement of Bacterial Magnetosomes by Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering.

Magnetosomes are membrane-enveloped single-domain ferromagnetic nanoparticles enabling the navigation of magnetotactic bacteria along magnetic field lines. Strict control over each step of biomineralization generates particles of high crystallinity, strong magnetization, and remarkable uniformity in size and shape, which is particularly interesting for many biomedical and biotechnological applications. However, to understand the physicochemical processes involved in magnetite biomineralization, close and precise monitoring of particle production is required. Commonly used techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or Fe measurements, allow only for semiquantitative assessment of the magnetosome formation without routinely revealing quantitative structural information. In this study, lab-based small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is explored as a means to monitor the different stages of magnetosome biogenesis in the model organism Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense SAXS is evaluated as a quantitative stand-alone technique to analyze the size, shape, and arrangement of magnetosomes in cells cultivated under different growth conditions. By applying a simple and robust fitting procedure based on spheres aligned in linear chains, it is demonstrated that the SAXS data sets contain information on both the diameter of the inorganic crystal and the protein-rich magnetosome membrane. The analyses corroborate a narrow particle size distribution with an overall magnetosome radius of 19 nm in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense Furthermore, the averaged distance between individual magnetosomes is determined, revealing a chain-like particle arrangement with a center-to-center distance of 53 nm. Overall, these data demonstrate that SAXS can be used as a novel stand-alone technique allowing for the at-line monitoring of magnetosome biosynthesis, thereby providing accurate information on the particle nanostructure.IMPORTANCE This study explores lab-based small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) as a novel quantitative stand-alone technique to monitor the size, shape, and arrangement of magnetosomes during different stages of particle biogenesis in the model organism Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense The SAXS data sets contain volume-averaged, statistically accurate information on both the diameter of the inorganic nanocrystal and the enveloping protein-rich magnetosome membrane. As a robust and nondestructive in situ technique, SAXS can provide new insights into the physicochemical steps involved in the biosynthesis of magnetosome nanoparticles as well as their assembly into well-ordered chains. The proposed fit model can easily be adapted to account for different particle shapes and arrangements produced by other strains of magnetotactic bacteria, thus rendering SAXS a highly versatile method.

SEAP activity measurement in reporter cell-based assays using BCIP / NBT as substrate.

SEAP (secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase) has been suggested as versatile reporter protein inter alia for cell ligand interaction. Generic photometric assay formats for this enzyme are currently lacking. Using the interaction of recombinant hCD40 ligand with HEK-Blue sensor cells expressing the CD40 receptor as example, we show that such an assay can be developed based on BCIP/NBT (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate/nitroblue tetrazolium chloride) as substrate. Supplementation of the reaction buffer with a micelle-forming detergent (TWEEN 20) stabilizes the water-insoluble reactions products thereby allowing reproducible photometric quantification of the colloidal dispersion. After optimizing the assay in terms of incubation time, cell number and environmental conditions, a cellular response to stimulation was already visible for 0.25 ng mL-1 of rhCD40L. Moreover, the sensitivity of the assay was significantly better than reported previously for alternative assays used in combination with the commercially available reporter cells. The use of BCIP/NBT as substrate therefore provides a robust and sensitive method to monitor SEAP activity in solution, which could conceivably be extended to other cell-based and biological assays using SEAP as reporter protein.

Precise Assembly of Genetically Functionalized Magnetosomes and Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particles Generates a Magnetic Biocomposite.

Magnetosomes represent magnetic nanoparticles with unprecedented characteristics. Both their crystal morphology and the composition of the enveloping membrane can be manipulated by genetic means, allowing the display of functional moieties on the particle surface. In this study, we explore the generation of a new biomaterial assembly by coupling magnetosomes with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles, both functionalized with complementary recognition sites. TMV consists of single-stranded RNA encapsidated by more than 2100 coat proteins, which enable chemical modification via functional groups. Incubation of EmGFP- or biotin-decorated TMV particles with magnetosomes genetically functionalized with GFP-binding nanobodies or streptavidin, respectively, results in the formation of magnetic, mesoscopic, strand-like biocomposites. TMV facilitates the agglomeration of magnetosomes by providing a scaffold. The size of the TMV-magnetosome mesostrands can be adjusted by varying the TMV-magnetosome particle ratios. The versatility of this novel material combination is furthermore demonstrated by coupling magnetosomes and terminal, 5'-functionalized TMV particles with high molecular precision, which results in "drumstick"-like TMV-magnetosome complexes. In summary, our approaches provide promising strategies for the generation of new biomaterial assemblies that could be used as scaffold for the introduction of further functionalities, and we foresee a broad application potential in the biomedical and biotechnological field.

In Vivo Coating of Bacterial Magnetic Nanoparticles by Magnetosome Expression of Spider Silk-Inspired Peptides.

Magnetosomes are natural magnetic nanoparticles with exceptional properties that are synthesized in magnetotactic bacteria by a highly regulated biomineralization process. Their usability in many applications could be further improved by encapsulation in biocompatible polymers. In this study, we explored the production of spider silk-inspired peptides on magnetosomes of the alphaproteobacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense. Genetic fusion of different silk sequence-like variants to abundant magnetosome membrane proteins enhanced magnetite biomineralization and caused the formation of a proteinaceous capsule, which increased the colloidal stability of isolated particles. Furthermore, we show that spider silk peptides fused to a magnetosome membrane protein can be used as seeds for silk fibril growth on the magnetosome surface. In summary, we demonstrate that the combination of two different biogenic materials generates a genetically encoded hybrid composite with engineerable new properties and enhanced potential for various applications.

Insights into the posttranslational assembly of the Mo-, S- and Cu-containing cluster in the active site of CO dehydrogenase of Oligotropha carboxidovorans.

Oligotropha carboxidovorans is characterized by the aerobic chemolithoautotrophic utilization of CO. CO oxidation by CO dehydrogenase proceeds at a unique bimetallic [CuSMoO2] cluster which matures posttranslationally while integrated into the completely folded apoenzyme. Kanamycin insertional mutants in coxE, coxF and coxG were characterized with respect to growth, expression of CO dehydrogenase, and the type of metal center present. These data along with sequence information were taken to delineate a model of metal cluster assembly. Biosynthesis starts with the MgATP-dependent, reductive sulfuration of [Mo(VI)O3] to [Mo(V)O2SH] which entails the AAA+-ATPase chaperone CoxD. Then Mo(V) is reoxidized and Cu(1+)-ion is integrated. Copper is supplied by the soluble CoxF protein which forms a complex with the membrane-bound von Willebrand protein CoxE through RGD-integrin interactions and enables the reduction of CoxF-bound Cu(2+), employing electrons from respiration. Copper appears as Cu(2+)-phytate, is mobilized through the phytase activity of CoxF and then transferred to the CoxF putative copper-binding site. The coxG gene does not participate in the maturation of the bimetallic cluster. Mutants in coxG retained the ability to utilize CO, although at a lower growth rate. They contained a regular CO dehydrogenase with a functional catalytic site. The presence of a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain on CoxG and the observed growth rates suggest a role of the PH domain in recruiting CO dehydrogenase to the cytoplasmic membrane enabling electron transfer from the enzyme to the respiratory chain. CoxD, CoxE and CoxF combine motifs of a DEAD-box RNA helicase which would explain their mutual translation.