The Use of DAO as a Marker for Histamine Intolerance: Measurements and Determinants in a Large Random Population-Based Survey.

Histamine intolerance (HIT) is a common adverse reaction to food where elimination and reintroduction of histamine-rich food is part of the investigation. Analysis of the enzyme diamine oxidase (DAO) is sometimes used as an additional tool for diagnosis. This study aimed to describe the distribution of DAO in a large representative cohort of adults and to determine the association between DAO activity and possible associated factors. The study is based on the population-based West Sweden Asthma Study and includes 1051 subjects. Subjects underwent structured interviews including questions on demography, asthma, allergy symptoms, and lifestyle factors. Subjects were assessed for specific-IgE-antibodies and measurement of DAO activity in serum. Previously suggested cut-off levels for low values (<3 U/mL), normal values (>10 U/mL), and median levels of DAO were used. In the group of 1051 subjects, only a few presented reactions upon histamine intake, whereas 44% presented DAO levels below the suggested normal cut-off levels. BMI and age were shown to have an impact on DAO activity among women with increasing activity of DAO with increasing BMI and age. Among men, only increasing age was seen to have an impact on DAO levels. There was no difference in DAO levels with different sensitization status to common foods or airborne allergens. No association between DAO levels and reported symptoms to histamine-rich foods could be found. In conclusion, the determination of the DAO enzyme needs to be re-evaluated and may not be used as a valuable tool for histamine intolerance using current cut-off values. Further studies are needed to improve the use of DAO as a biomarker for histamine intolerance.

Plasmablasts in previously immunologically naïve COVID-19 patients express markers indicating mucosal homing and secrete antibodies cross-reacting with SARS-CoV-2 variants and other beta-coronaviruses.

Antigen-specific class-switched antibodies are detected at the same time or even before IgM in serum of non-vaccinated individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2. These derive from the first wave of plasmablasts formed. Hence, the phenotype and specificity of plasmablasts can reveal information about early B-cell activation. Here we have analyzed B cells and plasmablasts circulating in blood of COVID-19 patients not previously exposed to SARS-CoV-2 during and after disease. We find that during infection with the original Wuhan strain, plasmablasts in blood produce IgA1, IgG1, and IgM, and that most express CCR10 and integrin ß1, only some integrin ß7, while the majority lack CCR9. Plasmablast-secreted antibodies are reactive to the spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins of the Wuhan strain as well as later variants of concern, but also bind S proteins from endemic and non-circulating betacoronaviruses. In contrast, after recovery, antibodies produced from memory B cells target variants of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 but compared to previously non-infected individuals do not show increased binding to endemic coronaviruses. This suggests that the early antibody response to a large extent stems from pre-existing cross-reactive class-switched memory B cells, and that although newly formed memory cells target the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus the numbers of broadly cross-reactive memory B cells do not increase extensively. The observations give insight into the role of pre-existing memory B cells in early antibody responses to novel pathogens and may explain why class-switched antibodies are detected early in the serum of COVID-19 patients.

Longitudinal single-cell analysis of SARS-CoV-2-reactive B cells uncovers persistence of early-formed, antigen-specific clones.

Understanding persistence and evolution of B cell clones after COVID-19 infection and vaccination is crucial for predicting responses against emerging viral variants and optimizing vaccines. Here, we collected longitudinal samples from patients with severe COVID-19 every third to seventh day during hospitalization and every third month after recovery. We profiled their antigen-specific immune cell dynamics by combining single-cell RNA-Seq, Cellular Indexing of Transcriptomes and Epitopes by Sequencing (CITE-Seq), and B cell receptor-Seq (BCR-Seq) with oligo-tagged antigen baits. While the proportion of Spike receptor binding domain-specific memory B cells (MBC) increased from 3 months after infection, the other Spike- and Nucleocapsid-specific B cells remained constant. All patients showed ongoing class switching and sustained affinity maturation of antigen-specific cells, and affinity maturation was not significantly increased early after vaccine. B cell analysis revealed a polyclonal response with limited clonal expansion; nevertheless, some clones detected during hospitalization, as plasmablasts, persisted for up to 1 year, as MBC. Monoclonal antibodies derived from persistent B cell families increased their binding and neutralization breadth and started recognizing viral variants by 3 months after infection. Overall, our findings provide important insights into the clonal evolution and dynamics of antigen-specific B cell responses in longitudinally sampled patients infected with COVID-19.

Off-Label Benralizumab in Severe Non-Necrotizing Eosinophilic Vasculitis following Critical COVID-19 Disease and in DRESS.

Benralizumab is a humanized recombinant mAb that binds to the interleukin 5 receptor (IL-5R) expressed on eosinophils and is approved for the treatment of severe eosinophilic asthma. There are a series of severe eosinophilic disorders that may benefit from this treatment, and it could be a life-saving therapy. In this paper, we present two severe patients with eosinophil-induced diseases that had a good resolution after one dose of Benralizumab 30 mg. The first case is a severe non-necrotizing eosinophilic vasculitis following critical COVID-19 disease and the second case is a DRESS (Drug Rash with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms Syndrome) due to allopurinol. Conclusions: The successful administration of Benralizumab in rare or severe eosinophilic disease could be an option for life-saving therapies when conventional treatments fail.

Celiac disease screening at a pediatric outpatient clinic: a feasibility study.

OBJECTIVES: Celiac disease (CD) is a common yet largely underdiagnosed disease. This study aimed to test the feasibility of incorporating a non-targeted CD screening in a pediatric outpatient setting and evaluate its short-term impact on children with serological evidence of disease. METHODS: Over five months, 500 children (aged 2-17 years) attending a general pediatric outpatient clinic in Gothenburg, Sweden, were enrolled and surveyed for current symptoms, quality of life, and background characteristics; 481 children were screened for tissue-transglutaminase antibodies (tTGA); repeated tTGA-positivity was defined as CD autoimmunity (CDA). Children with CDA were investigated for CD and for one year monitored for changes in symptoms, and quality of life. RESULTS: Eleven of 481 (2.3%) screened children had CDA. Children with CDA were younger (median 3.8 years) than those without CDA (8.8 years). No other major between-group differences were reported in background characteristics, symptoms, or quality of life. The screening was well-accepted by the families/participants. During 1-year follow-up, 8 of 11 children with CDA were diagnosed with CD. Children with screening-detected CD reported no significant changes in symptoms and quality of life and the dietary adherence rate was good. CONCLUSIONS: Non-targeted screening for CD was feasible in a general pediatric outpatient setting. While hampered by small sample size, our results are in line with previous screening studies indicating that symptoms do not differentiate CDA from non-CDA children. Also, among an overall minimal-symptomatic group of children, diagnosing CD and installation of treatment did not significantly change their well-being during 1-year follow-up.

Are Markers of Allergic Inflammation in Grass Pollen Allergy Influenced by H1 Antihistamines?

Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) play important roles in allergic rhinitis (AR). Treatment with H1 antihistamines improves AR symptoms and in vitro reduces the levels of adhesion molecules. The aim of the study was to evaluate serum levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in patients with AR to grass pollen and their response to different H1 antihistamines. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 50 patients with grass pollen AR were clinically and biologically evaluated. ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 serum levels were evaluated during pollen season before and after treatment with levocetirizine and desloratadine through the ELISA method. RESULTS: ICAM-1, VCAM-1, eosinophils, and total IgE were elevated in patients with AR, compared with healthy subjects. Both antihistamines improved specific symptoms of AR and increased patients' quality of life during pollen season after one month of treatment. H1 antihistamines reduced VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and total IgE after one-month treatment but not significantly. Patients with increased baseline values tend to remain with increased values after one-month AH1 treatment. CONCLUSIONS: ICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 levels are higher in patients with grass pollen-induced AR than healthy controls during pollen exposure. Their serum levels tend to remain at high values during pollen season despite antihistaminic therapy.

Could FeNO Predict Asthma in Patients with House Dust Mites Allergic Rhinitis?

Background and Objectives: The evolution of allergic rhinitis to asthma is a part of "atopic march". The aim of this study was to analyze possible predictive markers for asthma occurrence in patients with allergic rhinitis to house dust mites (HDM). Materials and Methods: Fifty-eight patients with persistent allergic rhinitis (PAR) were included. The clinical, biological evaluation and fractionated exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) measurement were performed at enrolment. The patients were clinically evaluated after one year to determine asthma occurrence. Results: The severity of rhinitis symptoms, levels of total immunoglobulin E (IgE), ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin and IL-6, but not IL-8 and TNF-α were higher in patients with allergic rhinitis who developed asthma compared to non-asthmatics, but the differences were not significant to considered them as predictive factors for asthma occurrence. The risk of asthma was independently influenced by patients aged over 30 years ((OR-3.74; CI95% 0.86-16.31; p = 0.07), a duration of allergic rhinitis over 12 months ((OR-4.20; CI95% 0.88-20; p = 0.07) and a basal FeNO over 28 parts per billion (pbb) ((OR-18.68; CI95% 3.79-92.05; p < 0.001). Conclusion: Clinical and biological parameters may predict asthma occurrence in patients with persistent allergic rhinitis to HDM. Adult patients with a longer duration of rhinitis symptoms and a high level of FeNO have a greater risk to develop asthma.

Circulating microRNAs correlate to clinical parameters in individuals with allergic and non-allergic asthma.

BACKGROUND: Asthma is a chronic airway disease affecting millions of people. Better methods to define asthma subgroups using clinical parameters and molecular biomarkers are crucial in the development of personalized medicine. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine if circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) may be used to distinguish well-defined asthma groups. METHODS: Blood serum from 116 well-defined subjects, including healthy controls and individuals with allergic or non-allergic asthma, from the West Sweden Asthma Study were included. Serum was analyzed for circulating miRNA expression of miR-126, - 145, -146a, - 155, - 223, and -374a and eosinophil cationic protein (ECP). Correlations between clinical characteristics and circulating miRNA expression as well as potential miRNA gene targets were investigated. RESULTS: A subset of miRNAs were differentially expressed between allergic and non-allergic asthmatic individuals. Alterations in expression of miR-155, -146a, -374a and - 145 were observed in allergic asthmatics in response to inhaled corticosteroid usage. Additionally, miR-223 and miR-374a expression varied in non-allergic asthmatics based on blood eosinophil numbers. Numerous clinical parameters, including lung function measurements, correlated with subsets of miRNAs. Finally, pathway analysis revealed a potential role for inhaled corticosteroid induced miRNAs in leukocyte regulation, IL-6 signaling and glucocorticoid response. CONCLUSION: Circulating miRNA expression was altered in subjects with allergic and non-allergic asthma and correlated to clinical parameters including lung function and potential gene targets involved in immune processes. This combination of clinical and molecular data may be a basis for the further, more precise classification of asthma subgroups. Taken together, these findings would further asthma research and benefit future patients through the discovery of molecular mechanisms as well as identifying asthma subgroups contributing to the development of personalized medicine.

How Could We Influence Systemic Inflammation in Allergic Rhinitis? The Role of H1 Antihistamines.

The aim of the study was the analysis of adhesion molecules' profile (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin) in patients with allergic rhinitis and the influence of H1 antihistamines on those markers. Seventy-nine patients with persistent allergic rhinitis (PAR) and 30 healthy volunteers were included in the study. The patients with PAR were treated with desloratadine 5 mg/day or levocetirizine 5 mg/day for 4 weeks. The clinical (rhinitis symptoms and total symptoms score (TSS), type of sensitization) and biological evaluation (total IgE, eosinophils, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin) as well as fractionate nitric oxide in exhaled air (FeNO) measurement was performed before and after treatment. The plasmatic levels of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, total IgE, and eosinophils and FeNO were significantly increased in patients with PAR compared to healthy volunteers. H1 antihistamines significantly improved TSS, with no differences between the investigated drugs. There was a significant decrease of eosinophils, total IgE, and FeNO after treatment. H1 antihistamines significantly decreased the plasmatic levels of ICAM-1 and E-selectin but not VCAM-1 compared to basal values. There is no difference between levocetirizine and desloratadine in the reduction of CAMs. A systemic inflammation characterized by increased levels of CAMs is present in patients with PAR. H1 antihistamines improve symptoms and reduce CAMs and FeNO levels after 1 month of treatment. H1 antihistamines might reduce the systemic inflammation which could be responsible to asthma occurrence in patients with PAR.

Evaluation of neopterin as a biomarker for the monitoring of Gaucher disease patients.

OBJECTIVES: Biomarker research is an important area of investigation in Gaucher disease, caused by an inherited deficiency of a lysosomal enzyme, glucocerebrosidase. We evaluated the usefulness of neopterin, as a novel biomarker reflecting chronic inflammation and immune system activation in Gaucher disease and analysed its evolution in response to enzyme replacement therapy (ERT). METHODS: Circulating plasma neopterin levels in 31 patients with non-neuronopathic Gaucher disease were measured before and after the onset of ERT and were compared with those of 18 healthy controls. Plasma chitotriosidase activity was also monitored, as a reference biomarker, against which we evaluated the evolution of neopterin. RESULTS: Neopterin levels were significantly increased in treatment-naïve patients (mean 11.90 ± 5.82 nM) compared with controls (6.63 ± 5.59 nM, Mann-Whitney U test P = 0.001), but returned to normal levels (6.92 ± 4.66 nM) following ERT. Investigating the diagnostic value of neopterin by receiver operating characteristic analysis, we found a cut-off value of 7.613 nM that corresponds to an area under the curve of 0.780 and indicates a good discrimination capacity, with a sensitivity of 0.774 and a specificity of 0.778. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that measurement of circulating neopterin may be considered as a novel test for the confirmation of diagnosis and monitoring of the efficacy of therapeutic intervention in Gaucher disease. Plasma neopterin levels reflect the global accumulation and activation of Gaucher cells and the extent of chronic immune activation in this disorder. CONCLUSION: Neopterin may be an alternative storage cell biomarker in Gaucher disease, especially in chitotriosidase-deficient patients.

Nitro-oxidative stress, VEGF and MMP-9 in patients with cirrhotic and non-cirrhotic portal hypertension.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Nitro-oxidative stress may have pathophysiological consequences. The study aimed to assess the nitro-oxidative stress, the vascular growth factor, and metalloproteinase-9 levels in patients with noncirrohic and cirrhotic portal hypertension. METHODS: Patients with noncirrhotic portal hypertension (n=50) and cirrhotic portal hypertension (n=50) from the 3rd Medical Clinic in Cluj-Napoca Romania were prospectively enrolled between October 2004 and October 2006. A control group of healthy volunteers (n=50) was also evaluated. Nitro-oxidative stress was assessed by measuring serum concentration of nitrites and nitrate, 3-nitrotyrosine, total oxidative status, total antioxidant reactivity, and oxidative stress index. Serum vascular growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-9 were also determined. RESULTS: Serum nitrites and nitrate levels significantly increased in both noncirrhotic (p<0.001) and cirrhotic portal hypertension (p=0.057). 3-nitrotyrosine also increased in noncirrhotic (p=0.001) and cirrhotic portal hypertension patients (p=0.014). Total oxidative status showed a significant increase in noncirrhotic (p<0.001) and in cirrhotic portal hypertension (p<0.001), but total antioxidant reactivity did not change significantly. The oxidative stress index increased in both noncirrhotic (p <0.001) and cirrhotic portal hypertension (p<0.001), as well as the serum vascular growth factor (p=0.005 and p=0.01, respectively). In NCPHT patients serum MMP-9 was significantly lower than in the healthy controls (p=0.03) and CPHT patients (p=0.05). CONCLUSION: In patients with noncirrhotic and cirrhotic portal hypertension a significant systemic nitro-oxidative stress was found, correlated with an increase of VEGF. MMP-9 decreased in noncirrhotic portal hypertension.

In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Effect of H1 Antihistamines in Allergic Rhinitis: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Allergic rhinitis is characterized by a chronic inflammation of nasal mucosa and represents a risk factor for asthma occurrence. H1 antihistamines reduce the symptoms of rhinitis, but some compounds may have anti-inflammatory properties. AIMS: We evaluated the plasma level of some cytokines in patients with persistent allergic rhinitis (PAR) and their evolution after a 4-week treatment with H1 anti-histamines, as well as the risk of asthma after 1.5 years. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized clinical trial. METHODS: Eighty-five patients with PAR and 30 healthy volunteers were included in the study. The patients with PAR were randomly divided into 2 groups: 41 patients treated with 5 mg/day desloratadine and 44 patients under 5 mg/day levocetirizine for 4 weeks. The clinical and biological evaluations were performed before and after treatment and included rhinitis symptoms and total symptoms score, type of sensitization, and plasmatic levels of total IgE, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α. RESULTS: IL-8 and TNF-α were significantly increased in patients with PAR compared to healthy volunteers (5.85 vs 3.12, p<0.001 and 2.32 vs 1.06, p<0.001, respectively). Both H1 antihistamines reduce all symptoms of allergic rhinitis, including nasal congestion and the plasmatic level of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α, after 4 weeks of treatment. The reduction of cytokine levels was not influenced by patients' age, sex, duration or severity of rhinitis, or type of sensitization. Levocetirizine has a superior effect compared to desloratadine in reducing the rhinitis symptoms and cytokines' level. Twenty eight (32.9%) of the patients presented asthma symptoms after 1.5 years. The occurrence of asthma was influenced by house dust sensitization (OR-14.6; CI 95% 1.8-116.3; p=0.01), but baseline values of cytokines were not predictive factors for its appearance. CONCLUSION: Levocetirizine and desloratadine as a prolonged therapy reduce plasmatic levels of some pro-inflammatory cytokines in patients with PAR. Levocetirizine has a better effect on decreasing the symptoms and plasmatic levels of IL-1ß and IL-8. (ClinicalTrials. gov Identifier: NCT02507635). FOUNDING: POSDRU and University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iuliu Hatieganu, Cluj Napoca.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: insights in the biological treatment beyond sorafenib.

UNLABELLED: Hepatocellular carcinoma has an increasing incidence and an impressive mortality. At present, the only authorized systemic treatment is the multi-kinase inhibitor sorafenib. A multitude of clinical trials are aimed at improving outcomes, both in firstY- and in second-line therapy. In this multitude of clinical trials, the purpose of our article was to familiarize physicians with the mechanisms of action of new biological therapies and to offer an algorithm for optimal trial selection for each patient, based on clinical and biological indicators. The available data were structured as follows: antiangiogenic therapy, c -MET inhibitors, combinations of chemotherapy with sorafenib, immune response modulators, cellular metabolism modulators, mTOR inhibitors, other multi-kinase inhibitors. CONCLUSION: Treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma remains a challenge for oncologists. Choosing the "right" trial may be the only chance of prolonging patient survival and improve his/her clinical status.

The role of Staphylococcal enterotoxin A in achieving oral tolerance to myelin basic protein in adult mice.

BACKGROUND: Oral tolerance is the biological process explaining the non-responsiveness of gut lymphoid tissue to intestinal content. Our study tested a new approach for the enhancement of oral tolerance to a multiple sclerosis-triggering auto-antigen-myelin basic protein, by its oral administration with the Staphylococcal enterotoxin A. METHODS: Immune tolerance thus stimulated was assessed in adult BALB/c mice, by measuring different cytokines from the supernatant of mesenteric lymph nodes cells (IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17, and TGF-ß), and in a SJL/E mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, by evaluating the development of regulatory T cells in mesenteric lymph nodes and the clinical outcome of the intervention. RESULTS: We obtained a significant rise in the levels of IL-10 and TGF-ß compared with control and a significant decrease of IFN-γ, IL-4 (p < 0.05). Regulatory T cells were increased compared with control (p < 0.05). These results were attributable both to myelin basic protein and to Staphylococcal enterotoxin A. The clinical outcome of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis was influenced only by the administration of myelin basic protein. CONCLUSION: In our experiment, Staphylococcal enterotoxin A enhanced the immune tolerance to myelin basic protein in the gut mucosa, but had no impact on the clinical evolution of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

5-Fluorouracil potentiates the anti-cancer effect of oxaliplatin on Colo320 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS. The present study was designed to examine the combined effects of Oxaliplatin (OXA) and 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) in the Colo320 cell line. METHODS. The antiproliferative effects were evaluated using the MTT assay, apoptosis by flow cytometry, and RT-PCR-array technology was used to determine the major effects of the two chemotherapeutic drugs upon the most important genes involved in apoptosis. RESULTS. The antiproliferative effects of the therapeutic agents, as individual therapy or combined, proved to be dose and time-dependent, with increased efficiency for the combined treatment. Flow cytometry data revealed increased apoptotic processes in the case of the combined treatment at 24 hours after administration. The RT-PCR-array data indicated that at 24 hours after OXA treatment, 49 genes were differentially expressed, of which 45 were up-regulated and 4 down-regulated. In the case of the 5-FU treatment, 35 genes were down regulated and 2 up regulated. In the combined treatment of 5-FU and OXA, 19 genes were up-regulated and 15 down-regulated. CONCLUSIONS. This study proved that drug resistance could be counteracted by combining OXA with 5-FU to form a tandem that is capable of reducing cell proliferation and to stimulate extrinsic apoptosis pathway by targeting death receptors on the cell surface.

Choice of anesthetic technique on plasma concentrations of interleukins and cell adhesion molecules.

BACKGROUND: Whether inflammatory responses to surgery are comparably activated during total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) and during volatile anesthesia remains unclear. We thus compared the perioperative effects of TIVA and isoflurane anesthesia on plasma concentrations of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory interleukins and cell adhesion molecules. METHODS: Patients having laparoscopic cholecystectomies were randomly allocated to two groups: 44 were assigned to TIVA and 44 to isoflurane anesthesia. IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-13, and the cellular adhesion molecules intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 were determined preoperatively, before incision, and at 2 and 24 hours postoperatively. Our primary outcomes were area-under-the-curve cytokine and adhesion molecule concentrations over 24 postoperative hours. RESULTS: The only statistically significant difference in area-under-the-curve concentrations was for IL-6, which was greater in patients given isoflurane:78 (95% confidence interval (CI): 52 to 109) pg/ml versus 33 (22 to 50) pg/ml, P= 0.006. Two hours after surgery, IL-6 was significantly greater than baseline in patients assigned to isoflurane: 47 (95% CI: 4 to 216, P<0.001) pg/ml versus 18 (95%CI: 4 to 374, P<0.001) pg/ml in the TIVA group. In contrast, IL-10 was significantly greater in patients assigned to TIVA: 20 (95% CI: 2 to 140, P<0.001) pg/ml versus 12 (95% CI: 3 to 126, P<0.001) pg/ml. By 24 hours after surgery, concentrations were generally similar between study groups and similar to baseline values. CONCLUSION: The only biomarker whose postoperative area-under-the-curve concentrations differed significantly as a function of anesthetic management was IL-6. Two hours after surgery, IL-6 concentrations were significantly greater in patients given isoflurane than TIVA. However, the differences were modest and seem unlikely to prove clinically important. Further studies are needed.

Novel cellular and molecular approaches to stratification and treatment of colorectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer is an important disease of the modern world, generating significant mortality and morbidity rates. Its therapy, although considerably improved, continues to be unhelpful for a large percentage of patients, especially for those in advanced stages. This justifies the efforts toward producing new therapies, as well as for stratifying patients according to risk factors and prediction of therapeutic response. In this respect, the contributions of modern science are essential for defining the most intimate mechanisms and players of tumorigenesis and for proposing new biomarkers. The study of antitumor immune responses has revealed new insights into the tumor microenvironment, leading to the development of vaccines and adoptive transfer of immunocompetent cells. Circulating tumor cells are a real opportunity to detect early relapses and to define risk categories, while miRNAs, a family of small non-coding RNA implicated in regulation of gene expression, evolved as a new class of biomarkers with high potential for diagnosis, prognosis and prediction of colorectal cancers.

Immunological aspects in viral hepatitis B and C infection.

Worldwide, viral hepatitis chronic infections are a serious health problem and a very interesting topic for both clinicians and researchers. Viral hepatitis has a variety of clinical forms: mild, inactive or severe and with a slow evolution, whose architectural structure of the hepatic tissue evolves towards cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Sometimes, the virally induced hepatic injury evolves spectacularly and rapidly leads to exitus. The factors that generate this evolution pattern depend on the immune response of the host and equally on the viral survival and immune surveillance avoidance strategies. This paper aims to resume new discoveries in the field of immunology of the B and C viral hepatitis infection, from the perspective of the complex interactions between virus and host.

Is interleukin-17 a proatherogenic biomarker?

The importance of chronic inflammation in atherogenesis and cytokine involvement in all stages of atherosclerotic plaque development is now obvious. Our approach of the significant cytokines involved in atherogenesis or cardiovascular diseases is based on a correlation between clinical research and experiments on animal models. The contribution of IL-17 in atherogenesis remains controversial. In this study we investigated the role of IL-17 in cardiovascular diseases and in atherosclerosis associated with pathological aging. We performed a case-control study, enrolling subjects aged over 65 years in both groups. We included 40 patients with cardiovascular disorders and 10 healthy volunteers. IL-17 levels were measured in the serum of patients and healthy controls, along with serum total cholesterol and triglycerides. Significantly higher levels of IL-17 were obtained in patients compared to healthy controls (p<0.001). The level of this biomarker correlated significantly with two biochemical parameters - serum total cholesterol and triglycerides (the Pearson coefficient showed statistical significance, p=0.033, respectively p=0.043). We did not find any correlation between IL-17 and these two parameters in the control group. Our study is useful in understanding the physiopathological implications of IL-17 in the atherogenesis process. This could represent a starting point for future studies, including research regarding the therapeutic potential of IL-17 in pathological aging.

Staphylococcal enterotoxin A: a candidate for the amplification of physiological immunoregulatory responses in the gut.

Staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) is one of the bacterial products tested for modulation of unwanted immune responses. Of all the staphylococcal enterotoxins, SEA is the most potent stimulator of T cells. When administered orally, SEA acts as a superantigen (SA), producing unspecific stimulation of intra-epithelial lymphocytes (IELs) in the intestinal mucosa. This stimulation results in amplification of the normal local immunologic responses, which are mainly regulatory. This amplification is based on increased local production of IFN-γ by IELs, which acts on the nearby enterocytes. As a result, the enterocytes produce large amounts of tolerosomes, cellular corpuscles which detach themselves from the basal poles of the enterocytes and contain antigenic peptides that are conditioned to be interpreted as tolerogenic by the gut immune system. Tolerosomes are physiologically produced as a response to dietary peptides; it is already known that enterocytes posses the molecular mechanisms for processing peptides in a similar manner to lymphocytes. The fate of tolerosomes is not precisely known, but it seems that they merge with intestinal dendritic cells, conveying to them the information that orally administered peptides must be interpreted as tolerogens. SEA can stimulate this mechanism, thus favoring the development of tolerance to peptides/proteins administered subsequently via the oral route. This characteristic of SEA might be useful in therapy for regulating immune responses. The present paper reviews the current status of research regarding the impact of SEA on the enteric immune system and its potential use in the treatment of allergic and autoimmune diseases.