Advances in glioblastoma multiforme: Integrating therapy and pathology perspectives.

Glioblastoma, a highly lethal form of brain cancer, is characterized by its aggressive growth and resistance to conventional treatments, often resulting in limited survival. The response to therapy is notably influenced by various patient-specific genetic factors, underscoring the disease's complexity. Despite the utilization of diverse treatment modalities such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, many patients experience local relapse, emphasizing the critical need for improved therapeutic strategies to effectively target these formidable tumors. Recent years have witnessed a surge in interest in natural products derived from plants, particularly alkaloids, for their potential anticancer effects. Alkaloids have shown promise in cancer chemotherapy by selectively targeting crucial signaling pathways implicated in tumor progression and survival. Specifically, they modulate the NF-κB and MAPK pathways, resulting in reduced tumor growth and altered gene expression across various cancer types. Additionally, alkaloids exhibit the capacity to induce cell cycle arrest, further impeding tumor proliferation in several malignancies. This review aims to delineate recent advances in understanding the pathology of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and to explore the potential therapeutic implications of alkaloids in managing this deadly disease. By segregating discussions on GBM pathology from those on alkaloid-based therapies, we provide a structured overview of the current challenges in GBM treatment and the promising opportunities presented by alkaloid-based interventions. Furthermore, we briefly discuss potential future directions in GBM research and therapy beyond alkaloids, including emerging treatment modalities or areas of investigation that hold promise for improving patient outcomes. In conclusion, our efforts offer hope for enhanced outcomes and improved quality of life for GBM patients through alkaloid-based therapies. By integrating insights from pathology and therapeutic perspectives, we underscore the significance of a comprehensive approach in addressing this devastating disease.

Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and herbal medicine-based therapeutic implication of rheumatoid arthritis: an overview.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) stands as an autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic joint inflammation, resulting in profound physiological alterations within the body. Affecting approximately 0.4-1.3% of the global population, this condition poses significant challenges as current therapeutic approaches primarily offer symptomatic relief, with the prospect of complete recovery remaining elusive. This review delves into the contemporary advancements in understanding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and the therapeutic potential of herbal medicine in managing RA. Notably, early diagnosis during the initial stages emerges as the pivotal determinant for successful recovery post-treatment. Utilizing tools such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), anti-citrullinated peptide antibody markers, and radiography proves crucial in pinpointing the diagnosis of RA with precision. Unveiling the intricate pathophysiological mechanisms of RA has paved the way for innovative therapeutic interventions, incorporating plant extracts and isolated phytoconstituents. In the realm of pharmacological therapy for RA, specific disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs have showcased commendable efficacy. However, this conventional approach is not without its drawbacks, as it is often associated with various side effects. The integration of methodological strategies, encompassing both pharmacological and plant-based herbal therapies, presents a promising avenue for achieving substantive recovery. This integrated approach not only addresses the symptoms but also strives to tackle the underlying causes of RA, fostering a more comprehensive and sustainable path towards healing.

Non-coding RNAs as Key Regulators of the Notch Signaling Pathway in Glioblastoma: Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Therapeutic Targets.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly invasive brain malignancy originating from astrocytes, accounting for approximately 30% of central nervous system malignancies. Despite advancements in therapeutic strategies including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiopharmaceutical drugs, the prognosis for GBM patients remains dismal. The aggressive nature of GBM necessitates the identification of molecular targets and the exploration of effective treatments to inhibit its proliferation. The Notch signaling pathway, which plays a critical role in cellular homeostasis, becomes deregulated in GBM, leading to increased expression of pathway target genes such as MYC, Hes1, and Hey1, thereby promoting cellular proliferation and differentiation. Recent research has highlighted the regulatory role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in modulating Notch signaling by targeting critical mRNA expression at the post-transcriptional or transcriptional levels. Specifically, various types of ncRNAs, including long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), have been shown to control multiple target genes and significantly contribute to the carcinogenesis of GBM. Furthermore, these ncRNAs hold promise as prognostic and predictive markers for GBM. This review aims to summarize the latest studies investigating the regulatory effects of ncRNAs on the Notch signaling pathway in GBM.

Precision epidemiology at the nexus of mathematics and nanotechnology: Unraveling the dance of viral dynamics.

The intersection of mathematical modeling, nanotechnology, and epidemiology marks a paradigm shift in our battle against infectious diseases, aligning with the focus of the journal on the regulation, expression, function, and evolution of genes in diverse biological contexts. This exploration navigates the intricate dance of viral transmission dynamics, highlighting mathematical models as dual tools of insight and precision instruments, a theme relevant to the diverse sections of Gene. In the context of virology, ethical considerations loom large, necessitating robust frameworks to protect individual rights, an aspect essential in infectious disease research. Global collaboration emerges as a critical pillar in our response to emerging infectious diseases, fortified by the predictive prowess of mathematical models enriched by nanotechnology. The synergy of interdisciplinary collaboration, training the next generation to bridge mathematical rigor, biology, and epidemiology, promises accelerated discoveries and robust models that account for real-world complexities, fostering innovation and exploration in the field. In this intricate review, mathematical modeling in viral transmission dynamics and epidemiology serves as a guiding beacon, illuminating the path toward precision interventions, global preparedness, and the collective endeavor to safeguard human health, resonating with the aim of advancing knowledge in gene regulation and expression.

The impact of the BCR-ABL oncogene in the pathology and treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia.

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) is characterized by chromosomal aberrations involving the fusion of the BCR and ABL genes on chromosome 22, resulting from a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. This fusion gives rise to the oncogenic BCR-ABL, an aberrant tyrosine kinase identified as Abl protein. The Abl protein intricately regulates the cell cycle by phosphorylating protein tyrosine residues through diverse signaling pathways. In CML, the BCR-ABL fusion protein disrupts the first exon of Abl, leading to sustained activation of tyrosine kinase and resistance to deactivation mechanisms. Pharmacological interventions, such as imatinib, effectively target BCR-ABL's tyrosine kinase activity by binding near the active site, disrupting ATP binding, and inhibiting downstream protein phosphorylation. Nevertheless, the emergence of resistance, often attributed to cap structure mutations, poses a challenge to imatinib efficacy. Current research endeavours are directed towards overcoming resistance and investigating innovative therapeutic strategies. This article offers a comprehensive analysis of the structural attributes of BCR-ABL, emphasizing its pivotal role as a biomarker and therapeutic target in CML. It underscores the imperative for ongoing research to refine treatment modalities and enhance overall outcomes in managing CML.

Development and evaluation of a protease inhibitor antiretroviral drug-loaded carbon nanotube delivery system for enhanced efficacy in HIV treatment.

The primary objective of this study was to enhance the effectiveness of the protease inhibitor antiretroviral drug by designing a novel delivery system using carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (COOH-MWCNTs). To achieve this, Fosamprenavir calcium (FPV), a prodrug of amprenavir known for inhibiting the proteolytic cleavage of immature virions, was selected as the protease inhibitor antiretroviral drug, and loaded onto COOH-MWCNTs using a direct loading method. The structural specificity of the drug-loaded MWCNTs, the percent entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release were rigorously evaluated for the developed formulation, referred to as FPV-MWCNT. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques were employed to confirm the structural integrity and specificity of the FPV-MWCNT formulation. The results demonstrated a remarkable entrapment efficiency of 79.57 ± 0.4 %, indicating the successful loading of FPV onto COOH-MWCNTs. FE-SEM and AFM analyses further confirmed the well-dispersed and elongated structure of the FPV-MWCNT formulation, without any signs of fracture, ensuring the stability and integrity of the drug delivery system. Moreover, particle size analysis revealed an average size of 290.1 nm, firmly establishing the nanoscale range of the formulation, with a zeta potential of 0.230 mV, signifying the system's colloidal stability. In vitro drug release studies conducted in methanolic phosphate buffer saline (PBS) at pH 7.4 and methanolic acetate buffer at pH 5 demonstrated sustained drug release from the FPV-MWCNT formulation. Over a period of 96 h, the formulation exhibited a cumulative drug release of 91.43 ± 2.3 %, showcasing the controlled and sustained release profile. Furthermore, hemolysis studies indicated a notable reduction in the toxicity of both FPV and MWCNT upon conjugation, although the percent hemolysis increased with higher concentrations, suggesting the need for careful consideration of dosage levels. In conclusion, the findings from this study underscore the potential of the FPV-MWCNT formulation as an effective and promising drug-conjugated system for delivering antiretroviral drugs. The successful encapsulation, sustained drug release, and reduced toxicity make FPV-MWCNT a compelling candidate for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of protease inhibitor antiretroviral drugs in the treatment of HIV. The developed delivery system holds great promise for future advancements in HIV treatment and paves the way for further research and development in the field of drug delivery utilizing carbon nanotube-based systems.

The role of the gut microbiome in gastrointestinal cancers.

The gut microbiota present in the human digestive system is incredibly varied and is home to trillions of microorganisms. The gut microbiome is shaped at birth, while numerous genetic, dietary, and environmental variables primarily influence the microbiome composition. The importance of gut microbiota on host health is becoming more widely acknowledged. Digestion, intestinal permeability, and immunological and metabolism responses can all be affected by changes in the composition and function of the gut microbiota. There is mounting evidence that the microbial population's complex traits are important biomarkers and indicators of patient outcomes in cancer and its therapies. Numerous studies have demonstrated that changed commensal gut microorganisms contribute to the development and spread of cancer through various routes. Despite the ongoing controversy surrounding the gut microbiome and gastrointestinal cancer, accumulating evidence points to a potentially far more intricate connection than a simple cause-and-effect relationship. SIMPLE SUMMARY: Due to their high frequency and fatality rate, gastrointestinal cancers are regarded as a severe public health issue with complex medical and economic burdens. The gut microbiota may directly or indirectly interact with existing therapies like immunotherapy and chemotherapy, affecting how well a treatment works. The gut microbiome influences the immune response's activity, function, and development. Generally, certain gut bacteria impact the antitumor actions during cancer by creating particular metabolites or triggering T-cell responses. Yet, certain bacterial species have been found to promote cellular proliferation and metastasis in cancer, and comprehending these interactions in the context of cancer may help identify possible treatment targets. Notwithstanding the improvements in the field, additional research is still required to comprehend the underlying processes, examine the effects on existing therapies, and pinpoint certain bacteria and immune cells that can cause this interaction.

Toxicological Profile of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Microplastic in Ingested Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon R+) and Its Adverse Effect on Behavior and Development.

Microplastics are readily available in the natural environment. Due to the pervasiveness of microplastic pollution, its effects on living organisms necessitate further investigation. The size, time of exposure, and amount of microplastic particles appear to be the most essential factor in determining their toxicological effects, either organismal or sub-organismal. For our research work, we preferred to work on a terrestrial model organism Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon R+). Therefore, in the present study, we characterized 2-100 µm size PET microplastic and confirmed its accumulation in Drosophila, which allowed us to proceed further in our research work. At larger dosages, research on locomotory activities such as climbing, jumping, and crawling indicated a decline in physiological and neuromuscular functions. Our studies also determined retarded development in flies and decreased survival rate in female flies after exposure to the highest concentration of microplastics. These experimental findings provide insight into the possible potential neurotoxic effects of microplastics and their detrimental effects on the development and growth of flies.

3D Printed Personalized Colon-targeted Tablets: A Novel Approach in Ulcerative Colitis Management.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD) are two types of idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that are increasing in frequency and incidence worldwide, particularly in highly industrialized countries. Conventional tablets struggle to effectively deliver anti-inflammatory drugs since the inflammation is localized in different areas of the colon in each patient. The goal of 3D printing technology in pharmaceutics is to create personalized drug delivery systems (DDS) that are tailored to each individual's specific needs. This review provides an overview of existing 3D printing processes, with a focus on extrusion-based technologies, which have received the most attention. Personalized pharmaceutical products offer numerous benefits to patients worldwide, and 3D printing technology is becoming more affordable every day. Custom manufacturing of 3D printed tablets provides innovative ideas for developing a tailored colon DDS. In the future, 3D printing could be used to manufacture personalized tablets for UC patients based on the location of inflammation in the colon, resulting in improved therapeutic outcomes and a better quality of life.

Carbon nanotube-wastewater treatment nexus: Where are we heading to?

Water treatment is crucial in solving the rising people's appetite for water and global water shortages. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have considerable promise for water treatment because of their adjustable and distinctive arbitrary, physical, as well as chemical characteristics. This illustrates the benefits and risks of integrating CNT into the traditional water treatment resource. Due to their outstanding adsorbent ability and chemical and mechanical properties, CNTs have gained global consideration in environmental applications. The desalination and extraction capability of CNT were improved due to chemical or physical modifications in pure CNTs by various functional groups. The CNT-based composites have many benefits, such as antifouling performance, high selectivity, and increased water permeability. Nevertheless, their full-scale implementations are still constrained by their high costs. Functionalized CNTs and their promising nanocomposites to eliminate contaminants are advised for marketing and extensive water/wastewater treatment.

Synthesis and characterization of nanobiochar from rice husk biochar for the removal of safranin and malachite green from water.

Xenobiotic pollution in environment is a potential risk to marine life, and human health. Nanobiotechnology is an advanced and emerging solution for the removal of environmental pollutants. Adsorption-based technologies are being used to alleviate the global prevalence of xenobiotics like dyes, due to their high efficacy and cost effectiveness. Current study explored the potential of nanobiochar syntehsized via ultrasonication and centrifugation from rice husk for dye removal from water. It involves the synthesis of nanobiochar from rice husk biochar for removal of Safranin, Malachite green, and a mixture of both from aqueous water. Biochar was synthesized through pyrolysis at 600 °C for 2 h. To convert it into nanobiochar, sonication and centrifugation techniques were applied. The yield obtained was 27.5% for biochar and 0.9% for nanobiochar. Nanobiochar analysis through Fourier-Transform Spectrometer (FTIR), X-ray Power Diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) suggested its crystalline nature having minerals rich in silicon, with a cracked and disintegrated carbon structure due to high temperature and processing treatments. Removal of dyes by nanobiochar was evaluated by changing different physical parameters i.e., nanobiochar dose, pH, and temperature. Pseudo-first order model and pseudo-second order model were applied to studying the adsorption kinetics mechanism. Kinetics for adsorption of dyes followed the pseudo-second order model suggesting the removal of dyes by process of chemical sorption. High adsorption was found at a higher concentration of nanobiochar, high temperature, and neutral pH. Maximum elimination percentages of safranin, malachite green, and a mixture of dyes were obtained as 91.7%, 87.5%, and 85% respectively. We conclude that nanobiochar could be a solution for dye removal from aqueous media.

Photonic nanoparticles: emerging theranostics in cancer treatment.

This review explores the potential of photonic nanoparticles for cancer theranostics. Photonic nanoparticles offer unique properties and photonics capabilities that make them promising materials for cancer treatment, particularly in the presence of near-infrared light. However, the size of the particles is crucial to their absorption of near-infrared light and therapeutic potential. The limitations and challenges associated with the clinical use of photonic nanoparticles, such as toxicity, immune system clearance, and targeted delivery to the tumor are also discussed. Researchers are investigating strategies such as surface modification, biodegradable nanoparticles, and targeting strategies to improve biocompatibility and accumulation in the tumor. Ongoing research suggests that photonic nanoparticles have potential for cancer theranostics, further investigation and development are necessary for clinical use.

Tiny particles called 'photonic nanoparticles' can be used to help treat cancer. These particles have special properties that allow them to be used with special light to treat cancer. However, the size of the particles is really important, so scientists are trying to find ways to make sure they are the right size. There are also some challenges with using these particles in people, like making sure they don't harm the body and that they go to the right place. Scientists are working on ways to improve the safety of these particles and make sure they go where they need to.

Impact of exosome therapy on pancreatic cancer and its progression.

Pancreatic cancer, one of the most aggressive tumors, has a dismal prognosis because of the low rates of early identification, fast progression, difficulties following surgery, and the ineffectiveness of current oncologic therapies. There are no imaging techniques or biomarkers that can accurately identify, categorize, or predict the biological behavior of this tumor. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that play a crucial rule in the progression, metastasis, and chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer. They have been verified to be potential biomarkers for pancreatic cancer management. Studying the role of exosomes in pancreatic cancer is substantial. Exosomes are secreted by most eukaryotic cells and participated in intercellular communication. The components of exosomes, including proteins, DNA, mRNA, microRNA, long non-coding RNA, circular RNA, etc., play a crucial role in regulating tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis in the process of cancer development, and can be used as a prognostic marker and/or grading basis for tumor patients. Hereby, in this concise review, we intend to summarize exosomes components and isolation, exosome secretion, function, importance of exosomes in the progression of pancreatic cancer and exosomal miRNAs as possible pancreatic cancer biomarkers. Finally, the application potential of exosomes in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, which provides theoretical supports for using exosomes to serve precise tumor treatment in the clinic, will be discussed.

Applications of trimetallic nanomaterials as Non-Enzymatic glucose sensors.

OBJECTIVE: This article critically reviews recent research on the use of trimetallic nanomaterials for the fabrication of non-enzymatic glucose sensors (NEGS), also known as fourth-generation glucose sensors (FGGS). SIGNIFICANCE: Diabetes is a prevalent chronic disease worldwide, and glucose monitoring is crucial for its management. However, conventional enzymatic glucose sensors suffer from several technological drawbacks, and there is a need to develop new-generation glucose sensors that can overcome these limitations. NEGS, particularly those composed of trimetallic nanocomposites, have demonstrated promising results in terms of improved shelf life, higher sensitivity, and simplicity of operation during glucose measurement. METHODS: In this review, we discuss the different trimetallic nanomaterials developed and used by researchers in recent years for glucose detection, including their mechanisms of action. We also provide a brief discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of FGGS-based trimetallic nanomaterials, as well as the industrial challenges in this area of research. RESULTS: Trimetallic nanomaterials for FGGS have shown excellent reproducibility and high stability, making them suitable for continuous glucose monitoring. The different types of trimetallic nanomaterials have varying sensing properties, and their performance can be tuned by controlling their synthesis parameters. CONCLUSION: Trimetallic nanomaterials are a promising avenue for the development of FGGS, recent research has demonstrated their potential for glucose monitoring. However, there are still some challenges that need to be addressed before their widespread adoption, such as their long-term stability and cost-effectiveness. Further research in this area is needed to overcome these challenges and to develop commercially viable FGGS for diabetes management.

Aptamers Versus Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF): A New Battle against Ovarian Cancer.

Cancer is one of the diseases that causes a high mortality as it involves unregulated and abnormal cell growth proliferation that can manifest in any body region. One of the typical ovarian cancer symptoms is damage to the female reproductive system. The death rate can be reduced through early detection of the ovarian cancer. Promising probes that can detect ovarian cancer are suitable aptamers. Aptamers, i.e., so-called chemical antibodies, have a strong affinity for the target biomarker and can typically be identified starting from a random library of oligonucleotides. Compared with other probes, ovarian cancer targeting using aptamers has demonstrated superior detection effectiveness. Various aptamers have been selected to detect the ovarian tumor biomarker, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The present review highlights the development of particular aptamers that target VEGF and detect ovarian cancer at its earliest stages. The therapeutic efficacy of aptamers in ovarian cancer treatment is also discussed.

Carbon Nanotubes in Breast Cancer Treatment: An Insight into Properties, Functionalization, and Toxicity.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide. It is the main reason why women die from cancer. Early diagnosis due to increased public awareness and better screening helps to tackle the disease through surgical resection and curative therapies. Chemotherapies are frequently used for cancer treatment, but these have severe adverse effects due to a lack of target specificity. Formulation development scientists and clinicians are now particularly concerned with developing safe and efficient drug delivery systems for breast cancer treatment. Potentially relevant literature to get the latest developments and updated information related to properties, functionalization, toxicity and application of carbon nanotubes in breast cancer treatment has been obtained from Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed portals. Nanomedicine has emerged as a novel tool for target-specific delivery systems and other biomedical applications. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are gaining popularity due to their unique mechanical and physiochemical properties for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It is a promising carrier that can deliver micro and macromolecules to the cancer cell. CNTs can be functionalized at the surface with different functional groups, which helps in targeting the drugs to target cancer cells. The present review has elaborated on different functionalization approaches and toxicity aspects of CNTs.

Role of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling in oncogenesis.

The signalling system known as mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is believed to be required for several biological activities involving cell proliferation. The serine-threonine kinase identified as mTOR recognises PI3K-AKT stress signals. It is well established in the scientific literature that the deregulation of the mTOR pathway plays a crucial role in cancer growth and advancement. This review focuses on the normal functions of mTOR as well as its abnormal roles in cancer development.

Nanomaterials and Their Impact on the Immune System.

Nanomaterials have been the focus of intensive development and research in the medical and industrial sectors over the past several decades. Some studies have found that these compounds can have a detrimental impact on living organisms, including their cellular components. Despite the obvious advantages of using nanomaterials in a wide range of applications, there is sometimes skepticism caused by the lack of substantial proof that evaluates potential toxicities. The interactions of nanoparticles (NPs) with cells of the immune system and their biomolecule pathways are an area of interest for researchers. It is possible to modify NPs so that they are not recognized by the immune system or so that they suppress or stimulate the immune system in a targeted manner. In this review, we look at the literature on nanomaterials for immunostimulation and immunosuppression and their impact on how changing the physicochemical features of the particles could alter their interactions with immune cells for the better or for the worse (immunotoxicity). We also look into whether the NPs have a unique or unexpected (but desired) effect on the immune system, and whether the surface grafting of polymers or surface coatings makes stealth nanomaterials that the immune system cannot find and get rid of.

Ran GTPase and Its Importance in Cellular Signaling and Malignant Phenotype.

Ran is a member of the Ras superfamily of proteins, which primarily regulates nucleocytoplasmic trafficking and mediates mitosis by regulating spindle formation and nuclear envelope (NE) reassembly. Therefore, Ran is an integral cell fate determinant. It has been demonstrated that aberrant Ran expression in cancer is a result of upstream dysregulation of the expression of various factors, such as osteopontin (OPN), and aberrant activation of various signaling pathways, including the extracellular-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MEK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) pathways. In vitro, Ran overexpression has severe effects on the cell phenotype, altering proliferation, adhesion, colony density, and invasion. Therefore, Ran overexpression has been identified in numerous types of cancer and has been shown to correlate with tumor grade and the degree of metastasis present in various cancers. The increased malignancy and invasiveness have been attributed to multiple mechanisms. Increased dependence on Ran for spindle formation and mitosis is a consequence of the upregulation of these pathways and the ensuing overexpression of Ran, which increases cellular dependence on Ran for survival. This increases the sensitivity of cells to changes in Ran concentration, with ablation being associated with aneuploidy, cell cycle arrest, and ultimately, cell death. It has also been demonstrated that Ran dysregulation influences nucleocytoplasmic transport, leading to transcription factor misallocation. Consequently, patients with tumors that overexpress Ran have been shown to have a higher malignancy rate and a shorter survival time compared to their counterparts.

Current state of, prospects for, and obstacles to mRNA vaccine development.

Given their superior efficacy, rapid engineering, low-cost manufacturing, and safe delivery prospects, mRNA vaccines offer an intriguing alternative to conventional vaccination technologies. Several mRNA vaccine platforms targeting infectious diseases and various types of cancer have exhibited beneficial results both in vivo and in vitro. Issues related to mRNA stability and immunogenicity have been addressed. Current mRNA vaccines can generate robust immune responses, without being constrained by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) haplotype of the recipient. Given that mRNA vaccinations are the only transient genetic information carriers, they are also safe. In this review, we provide an update and overview on mRNA vaccines, including their current state, and the problems that have prevented them from being used in more general therapeutic ways.