Mechanisms of objectionable textural changes by microwave reheating of foods: a review.

Microwave reheating, compared to a conventional method, is notorious for lack of crust formation and severe toughening of flour and starch-based products. This review discusses how the typical thermal characteristics of microwave heating are involved in affecting the texture as well as the possible role of non-thermal effects. While low surface temperature is the well known mechanism why microwave heating is incapable of crust formation, the most severe toughening problems are caused by internal boiling. Beside moisture loss, the internally generated steam causes 2 main textural effects when it is vented out. The first is the replacing of non-condensable gases (air) in the product voids with a condensable one (steam). When the latter is condensed by cooling, a vacuum may be created in the voids causing their collapse and a formation of a more compact and tougher structure. The second textural effect involves amylose extraction from starch granules and its redistribution to eventually form a rich layer on the walls of the structural foam cells of the baked goods. Relatively fast crystallization of the amylose seems to be the main cause of toughening a short while after microwave heating. This mechanism is relevant mainly to products where starch is an important structural element. Structural disruptions by localize excessive steam pressure at hot-spots are also discussed in this review as well as methods of preventing or alleviating the most objectionable textural changes. The most effective ways of preventing these undesirable changes are by avoiding internal boiling and/or by manipulating the starch content and properties.

Mechanism of crumb toughening in bread-like products by microwave reheating.

Comparing breads reheated in conventional and microwave ovens revealed that the latter considerably toughens the crumb texture when internal boiling is induced. Moisture loss in itself has a relatively minor toughening effect. The major changes, caused by boiling, occur only in systems with starch concentration in excess of a threshold level of about 37% (wet basis). Substantially greater amounts of amylose are leached out of the granules in the case of sustained boiling during microwave heating, as compared to conventional oven heating. The free amylose solution is being "pushed" by the generated steam pressure toward the air-cell wall interface. A rich amylose phase is accumulated at that interface and over the granules. Upon cooling, the amylose undergoes rapid phase changes; thus, toughening is apparent in a relatively short time after heating. Minimizing the textural deleterious effects in microwave reheating of bread-like products should entail (a) preventing or minimizing internal boiling, (b) diluting of the starch concentration below the threshold level, (c) interfering with the amylose phase change by using complex forming agents.

Hydration forces underlie the exclusion of salts and of neutral polar solutes from hydroxypropylcellulose.

The distance dependence for the preferential exclusion of several salts and neutral solutes from hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) has been measured via the effect of these small molecules on the thermodynamic forces between HPC polymers in ordered arrays. The concentration of salts and neutral solutes decreases exponentially as the spacing between apposing nonpolar HPC surfaces decreases. For all solutes, the spatial decay lengths of this exclusion are remarkably similar to those observed between many macromolecules at close spacings where intermolecular forces have been ascribed to the energetics of water structuring. Exclusion magnitudes depend strongly on the nature and size of the particular salt or solute; for the three potassium salts studied, exclusion follows the anionic Hofmeister series. The change in the number of excess waters associated with HPC polymers is independent of solute concentration suggesting that the dominating interactions are between solutes and the hydrated polymer. These findings further confirm the importance of solvation interactions and reveal an unexpected unity of Hofmeister effects, preferential hydration, and hydration forces.

FLOW BEHAVIOUR OF CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE.

Orange concentrate, at the 60-65° Brix concentration level, is a non-Newtonian fluid with yield stress and time dependent behaviour. While recovery from low-rate shear is reversible, shear at high rate causes irreversible destruction of the viscous structure. Part of this effect is due to disintegration of pulp particles. Pulpless concentrate (serum) is also non-Newtonian, but yield stress and time dependent behaviour are present only when pectin concentration is high. Depectinized serum is Newtonian. The effect of temperature on flow properties of all three types of material was studied.