Somatostatin interneurons control the timing of developmental desynchronization in cortical networks.

Synchronous neuronal activity is a hallmark of the developing brain. In the mouse cerebral cortex, activity decorrelates during the second week of postnatal development, progressively acquiring the characteristic sparse pattern underlying the integration of sensory information. The maturation of inhibition seems critical for this process, but the interneurons involved in this crucial transition of network activity in the developing cortex remain unknown. Using in vivo longitudinal two-photon calcium imaging during the period that precedes the change from highly synchronous to decorrelated activity, we identify somatostatin-expressing (SST+) interneurons as critical modulators of this switch in mice. Modulation of the activity of SST+ cells accelerates or delays the decorrelation of cortical network activity, a process that involves regulating the maturation of parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) interneurons. SST+ cells critically link sensory inputs with local circuits, controlling the neural dynamics in the developing cortex while modulating the integration of other interneurons into nascent cortical circuits.

Prominent in vivo influence of single interneurons in the developing barrel cortex.

Spontaneous synchronous activity is a hallmark of developing brain circuits and promotes their formation. Ex vivo, synchronous activity was shown to be orchestrated by a sparse population of highly connected GABAergic 'hub' neurons. The recent development of all-optical methods to record and manipulate neuronal activity in vivo now offers the unprecedented opportunity to probe the existence and function of hub cells in vivo. Using calcium imaging, connectivity analysis and holographic optical stimulation, we show that single GABAergic, but not glutamatergic, neurons influence population dynamics in the barrel cortex of non-anaesthetized mouse pups. Single GABAergic cells mainly exert an inhibitory influence on both spontaneous and sensory-evoked population bursts. Their network influence scales with their functional connectivity, with highly connected hub neurons displaying the strongest impact. We propose that hub neurons function in tailoring intrinsic cortical dynamics to external sensory inputs.

Assemblies of Perisomatic GABAergic Neurons in the Developing Barrel Cortex.

The developmental journey of cortical interneurons encounters several activity-dependent milestones. During the early postnatal period in developing mice, GABAergic neurons are transient preferential recipients of thalamic inputs and undergo activity-dependent migration arrest, wiring, and programmed cell-death. Despite their importance for the emergence of sensory experience and the role of activity in their integration into cortical networks, the collective dynamics of GABAergic neurons during that neonatal period remain unknown. Here, we study coordinated activity in GABAergic cells of the mouse barrel cortex using in vivo calcium imaging. We uncover a transient structure in GABAergic population dynamics that disappears in a sensory-dependent process. Its building blocks are anatomically clustered GABAergic assemblies mostly composed by prospective parvalbumin-expressing cells. These progressively widen their territories until forming a uniform perisomatic GABAergic network. Such transient patterning of GABAergic activity is a functional scaffold that links the cortex to the external world prior to active exploration. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

GABAergic Restriction of Network Dynamics Regulates Interneuron Survival in the Developing Cortex.

During neonatal development, sensory cortices generate spontaneous activity patterns shaped by both sensory experience and intrinsic influences. How these patterns contribute to the assembly of neuronal circuits is not clearly understood. Using longitudinal in vivo calcium imaging in un-anesthetized mouse pups, we show that spatially segregated functional assemblies composed of interneurons and pyramidal cells are prominent in the somatosensory cortex by postnatal day (P) 7. Both reduction of GABA release and synaptic inputs onto pyramidal cells erode the emergence of functional topography, leading to increased network synchrony. This aberrant pattern effectively blocks interneuron apoptosis, causing increased survival of parvalbumin and somatostatin interneurons. Furthermore, the effect of GABA on apoptosis is mediated by inputs from medial ganglionic eminence (MGE)-derived but not caudal ganglionic eminence (CGE)-derived interneurons. These findings indicate that immature MGE interneurons are fundamental for shaping GABA-driven activity patterns that balance the number of interneurons integrating into maturing cortical networks.

Modeling driver cells in developing neuronal networks.

Spontaneous emergence of synchronized population activity is a characteristic feature of developing brain circuits. Recent experiments in the developing neo-cortex showed the existence of driver cells able to impact the synchronization dynamics when single-handedly stimulated. We have developed a spiking network model capable to reproduce the experimental results, thus identifying two classes of driver cells: functional hubs and low functionally connected (LC) neurons. The functional hubs arranged in a clique orchestrated the synchronization build-up, while the LC drivers were lately or not at all recruited in the synchronization process. Notwithstanding, they were able to alter the network state when stimulated by modifying the temporal activation of the functional clique or even its composition. LC drivers can lead either to higher population synchrony or even to the arrest of population dynamics, upon stimulation. Noticeably, some LC driver can display both effects depending on the received stimulus. We show that in the model the presence of inhibitory neurons together with the assumption that younger cells are more excitable and less connected is crucial for the emergence of LC drivers. These results provide a further understanding of the structural-functional mechanisms underlying synchronized firings in developing circuits possibly related to the coordinated activity of cell assemblies in the adult brain.

Spatial Embryonic Origin Delineates GABAergic Hub Neurons Driving Network Dynamics in the Developing Entorhinal Cortex.

Coordinated neuronal activity is essential for the development of cortical circuits. GABAergic hub neurons that function in orchestrating early neuronal activity through a widespread net of postsynaptic partners are therefore critical players in the establishment of functional networks. Evidence for hub neurons was previously found in the hippocampus, but their presence in other cortical regions remains unknown. We examined this issue in the entorhinal cortex, an initiation site for coordinated activity in the neocortex and for the activity-dependent maturation of the entire entorhinal-hippocampal network. Using an unbiased approach that identifies "driver hub neurons" displaying a high number of functional links in living slices, we show that while almost half of the GABAergic cells single-handedly influence network dynamics, only a subpopulation of cells born in the MGE and composed of somatostatin-expressing neurons located in infragranular layers, spontaneously operate as "driver" hubs. This indicates that despite differences in the origin of interneuron diversity, the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex share similar developmental mechanisms for the establishment of functional circuits.

Early increasing-intensity treadmill exercise reduces neuropathic pain by preventing nociceptor collateral sprouting and disruption of chloride cotransporters homeostasis after peripheral nerve injury.

Activity treatments, such as treadmill exercise, are used to improve functional recovery after nerve injury, parallel to an increase in neurotrophin levels. However, despite their role in neuronal survival and regeneration, neurotrophins may cause neuronal hyperexcitability that triggers neuropathic pain. In this work, we demonstrate that an early increasing-intensity treadmill exercise (iTR), performed during the first week (iTR1) or during the first 2 weeks (iTR2) after section and suture repair of the rat sciatic nerve, significantly reduced the hyperalgesia developing rapidly in the saphenous nerve territory and later in the sciatic nerve territory after regeneration. Nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in sensory neurons and spinal cord was reduced in parallel. iTR prevented the extension of collateral sprouts of saphenous nociceptive calcitonin gene-related peptide fibers within the adjacent denervated skin and reduced NGF expression in the same skin and in the L3 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Injury also induced Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) upregulation in DRG, and K⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter 2 (KCC2) downregulation in lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn. iTR normalized NKCC1 and boosted KCC2 expression, together with a significant reduction of microgliosis in L3-L5 dorsal horn, and a reduction of BDNF expression in microglia at 1 to 2 weeks postinjury. These data demonstrate that specific activity protocols, such as iTR, can modulate neurotrophins expression after peripheral nerve injury and prevent neuropathic pain by blocking early mechanisms of sensitization such as collateral sprouting and NKCC1/KCC2 disregulation.

NKCC1 Activation Is Required for Myelinated Sensory Neurons Regeneration through JNK-Dependent Pathway.

After peripheral nerve injury, axons are able to regenerate, although specific sensory reinnervation and functional recovery are usually worse for large myelinated than for small sensory axons. The mechanisms that mediate the regeneration of different sensory neuron subpopulations are poorly known. The Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) is particularly relevant in setting the intracellular chloride concentration. After axotomy, increased NKCC1 phosphorylation has been reported to be important for neurite outgrowth of sensory neurons; however, the mechanisms underlying its effects are still unknown. In the present study we used in vitro and in vivo models to assess the differential effects of blocking NKCC1 activity on the regeneration of different types of dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) neurons after sciatic nerve injury in the rat. We observed that blocking NKCC1 activity by bumetanide administration induces a selective effect on neurite outgrowth and regeneration of myelinated fibers without affecting unmyelinated DRG neurons. To further study the mechanism underlying NKCC1 effects, we also assessed the changes in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling under NKCC1 modulation. The inhibition of NKCC1 activity in vitro and in vivo modified pJNK1/2/3 expression in DRG neurons. Together, our study identifies a mechanism selectively contributing to myelinated axon regeneration, and point out the role of Cl(-) modulation in DRG neuron regeneration and in the activation of MAPKs, particularly those belonging to the JNK family.

Prevention of NKCC1 phosphorylation avoids downregulation of KCC2 in central sensory pathways and reduces neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury.

Neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury is characterized by loss of inhibition in both peripheral and central pain pathways. In the adult nervous system, the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) (NKCC1) and neuron-specific K(+)-Cl(-) (KCC2) cotransporters are involved in setting the strength and polarity of GABAergic/glycinergic transmission. After nerve injury, the balance between these cotransporters changes, leading to a decrease in the inhibitory tone. However, the role that NKCC1 and KCC2 play in pain-processing brain areas is unknown. Our goal was to study the effects of peripheral nerve injury on NKCC1 and KCC2 expression in dorsal root ganglia (DRG), spinal cord, ventral posterolateral (VPL) nucleus of the thalamus, and primary somatosensory (S1) cortex. After sciatic nerve section and suture in adult rats, assessment of mechanical and thermal pain thresholds showed evidence of hyperalgesia during the following 2 months. We also found an increase in NKCC1 expression in the DRG and a downregulation of KCC2 in spinal cord after injury, accompanied by later decrease of KCC2 levels in higher projection areas (VPL and S1) from 2 weeks postinjury, correlating with neuropathic pain signs. Administration of bumetanide (30 mg/kg) during 2 weeks following sciatic nerve lesion prevented the previously observed changes in the spinothalamic tract projecting areas and the appearance of hyperalgesia. In conclusion, the present results indicate that changes in NKCC1 and KCC2 in DRG, spinal cord, and central pain areas may contribute to development of neuropathic pain.

Neonatal allopregnanolone or finasteride administration modifies hippocampal K(+) Cl(-) co-transporter expression during early development in male rats.

The maintenance of levels of endogenous neurosteroids (NS) across early postnatal development of the brain, particularly to the hippocampus, is crucial for their maturation. Allopregnanolone (Allop) is a NS that exerts its effect mainly through the modulation of the GABAA receptor (GABAAR). During early development, GABA, acting through GABAAR, that predominantly produces depolarization shifts to hyperpolarization in mature neurons, around the second postnatal week in rats. Several factors contribute to this change including the progressive increase of the neuron-specific K(+)/Cl(-) co-transporter 2 (KCC2) (a chloride exporter) levels. Thus, we aimed to analyze whether a different profile of NS levels during development is critical and can alter this natural progression of KCC2 stages. We administrated sustained Allop (20mg/kg) or Finasteride (5α-reductase inhibitor, 50mg/kg) from the 5th postnatal day (PD5) to PD9 and assessed changes in the hippocampal expression of KCC2 at transcript and protein levels as well as its active phosphorylated state in male rats. Taken together data indicated that manipulation of NS levels during early development influence KCC2 levels and point out the importance of neonatal NS levels for the hippocampal development.

Resveratrol improves motoneuron function and extends survival in SOD1(G93A) ALS mice.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an adult onset neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive paralysis and death due to degeneration of motoneurons in spinal cord, brainstem and motor cortex. Nowadays, there is no effective therapy and patients die 2-5 years after diagnosis. Resveratrol (trans-3,4',5-trihydroxystilbene) is a natural polyphenol found in grapes, with promising neuroprotective effects since it induces expression and activation of several neuroprotective pathways involving Sirtuin1 and AMPK. The objective of this work was to assess the effect of resveratrol administration on SOD1(G93A) ALS mice. We determined the onset of symptoms by rotarod test and evaluated upper and lower motoneuron function using electrophysiological tests. We assessed the survival of the animals and determined the number of spinal motoneurons. Finally, we further investigated resveratrol mechanism of action by means of western blot and immunohistochemical analysis. Resveratrol treatment from 8 weeks of age significantly delayed disease onset and preserved lower and upper motoneuron function in female and male animals. Moreover, resveratrol significantly extended SOD1(G93A) mice lifespan and promoted survival of spinal motoneurons. Delayed resveratrol administration from 12 weeks of age also improved spinal motoneuron function preservation and survival. Further experiments revealed that resveratrol protective effects were associated with increased expression and activation of Sirtuin 1 and AMPK in the ventral spinal cord. Both mediators promoted normalization of the autophagic flux and, more importantly, increased mitochondrial biogenesis in the SOD1(G93A) spinal cord. Taken together, our findings suggest that resveratrol may represent a promising therapy for ALS.

Differential effects on KCC2 expression and spasticity of ALS and traumatic injuries to motoneurons.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease manifested by progressive muscle atrophy and paralysis due to the loss of upper and lower motoneurons (MN). Spasticity appears in ALS patients leading to further disabling consequences. Loss of the inhibitory tone induced by downregulation of the potassium chloride cotransporter 2 (KCC2) in MN has been proposed to importantly contribute to the spastic behavior after spinal cord injury (SCI). The aim of the present study was to test whether the alterations in the expression of KCC2 are linked to the appearance of spasticity in the SOD(G93A) ALS murine model. We compared SOD(G93A) mice to wild type mice subjected to SCI to mimic the spinal MN disconnection from motor descending pathways, and to sciatic nerve lesion to mimic the loss of MN connectivity to muscle. Electrophysiological results show that loss of motor function is observed at presymptomatic stage (8 weeks) in SOD(G93A) mice but hyperreflexia and spasticity do not appear until a late stage (16 weeks). However, KCC2 was not downregulated despite MN suffered disconnection both from muscles and upper MNs. Further experiments revealed decreased gephyrin expression, as a general marker of inhibitory systems, accompanied by a reduction in the number of Renshaw interneurons. Moreover, 5-HT fibers were increased in the ventral horn of the lumbar spinal cord at late stage of disease progression in SOD1(G93A) mice. Taken together, the present results indicate that spasticity appears late in the ALS model, and may be mediated by a decrease in inhibitory interneurons and an increase of 5-HT transmission, while the absence of down-regulation of KCC2 could rather indicate an inability of MNs to respond to insults.

Neonatal finasteride administration alters hippocampal α4 and δ GABAAR subunits expression and behavioural responses to progesterone in adult rats.

Allopregnanolone is a neurosteroid that has been reported to fluctuate during early developmental stages. Previous experiments reported the importance of neonatal endogenous allopregnanolone levels for the maturation of the central nervous system and particularly for the hippocampus. Changes in neonatal allopregnanolone levels have been related to altered adult behaviour and with psychopathological susceptibility, including anxiety disorders, schizophrenia and drug abuse. However, the mechanism underlying these changes remains to be elucidated. In the present study we assessed changes in hippocampal expression of α4 and δ GABAA receptor (GABAAR) subunits as a consequence of neonatal finasteride (a 5-α reductase inhibitor) administration during early development (PD6 to PD15) in male rats. We observed that the treatment altered the temporal window of the natural peak in the expression of these subunits during development. Additionally, the level of these subunits were higher than in non-handled and control animals in the adult hippocampus. We observed that in adulthood, neonatal finasteride-treated animals presented an anxiogenic-like profile in response to progesterone administration which was absent in the rest of the groups. In conclusion, these results corroborate the relevance of neonatal maintenance of neurosteroid levels for behavioural anxiety responses in the adult, and point to some of the mechanisms involved in this alterations.

Interaction between neonatal allopregnanolone administration and early maternal separation: effects on adolescent and adult behaviors in male rat.

Endogenous neurosteroid level fluctuations are related to several emotional and behavioral alterations. Neurosteroids also have important roles during neurodevelopment, with there being a relationship between modification of their levels in neurodevelopmental periods and behavioral alterations in adolescence and adulthood. Early maternal separation (EMS) is a stressful event that also alters neurodevelopment and adolescent and adult behaviors. The aim of the present study is to analyze the interaction between the effects of the neonatal alteration of allopregnanolone (AlloP), neurosteroid that increase its levels after acute stress presentation, and EMS on adolescent exploration and adult anxiety and sensorimotor gating in male rats. AlloP (10 mg/kg s.c.) was administrated between postnatal day 5 (PN5) and PN9, and a single 24-hour period of EMS was carried out on PN9. Exploration was analyzed at PN40 and PN60. At adult age (PN85), anxiety was tested by means of the elevated plus-maze test (EPM), and sensorimotor gating by means of prepulse inhibition test (PPI). PPI deterioration has been considered as a reliable indicator of diseases such as schizophrenia. Results showed that the previous neonatal AlloP administration neutralized the effects of EMS in the adolescent exploration (increase of traveled distance and decrease of head-dips). In adult age, an anxiolytic-like profile was observed as a consequence of EMS. Finally, EMS and neonatal AlloP disrupted PPI. Taken together, these data show the important role that physiological neonatal AlloP levels and stressful events play in neural development, adult behavior and vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia.

Neonatal neurosteroid levels are determinant in shaping adult prepulse inhibition response to hippocampal allopregnanolone in rats.

Diverse studies indicate that the alteration of the physiological levels of neurosteroids in early neonatal phases provokes alterations in the maturation of certain cerebral structures. Allopregnanolone (ALLO) has important modulatory effects in the hippocampus during the postnatal period where the adult pattern of inhibitory transmission is being established. In order to study whether endogenous neonatal ALLO levels would be a determinant parameter involved in mediating adult hippocampal GABAA system maturation, we investigated the effects of neonatal finasteride (50mg/kg, SC) treatment and ALLO (ALLO; 20mg/kg, SC) supplementation on an animal behavioural model with relevance to neurodevelopmental disorder, such as schizophrenia. Two sets of experiments were conducted. Neonatal treatment (from postnatal day (pnd) 5 to pnd9) was performed in 23 male Wistar rats and steroid quantification was performed in hippocampal homogenates at pnd9. A second group (n=127) underwent neonatal treatment (pnd5-pnd9) and were submitted to hippocampal surgery at 80d. The behavioural response to bilateral intrahippocampal neurosteroid administration (ALLO, 0.2µg/0.5µl per side or pregnenolone sulphate 5ng/0.5µl per side) on novelty-induced exploration activity and prepulse inhibition (PPI) was assessed at 95d. Results showed that neonatal ALLO and finasteride administration decreased novelty directed exploratory behaviour and impaired the prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response at 95 days of age. Moreover, intrahippocampal ALLO increased head-dipping behaviour independently of the neonatal treatment, while intrahippocampal ALLO decreased PPI only in finasteride and ALLO groups. The results obtained in the present study indicate the importance of neonatal neurosteroid levels in the development of hippocampal function and their relevance in a behavioural phenotype that some have likened to that present in schizophrenia.

Alteration of neonatal Allopregnanolone levels affects exploration, anxiety, aversive learning and adult behavioural response to intrahippocampal neurosteroids.

Neurosteroids (NS) are well known to exert modulatory effects on ionotropic receptors. Recent findings indicate that NS could also act as important factors during development. In this sense, neonatal modifications of Allopregnanolone (Allop) levels during critical periods have been demonstrate to alter the morphology of the hippocampus but also other brain structures. The aim of the present work is to screen whether the alterations of Allop levels modify adult CA1 hippocampal response to NS administration. For this purpose, pups were injected with Allop (20 mg/kg s.c.), Finasteride (5α-reductase inhibitor that impedes Allop synthesis) (50 mg/kg s.c.) or Vehicle from postnatal day 5 (P5) to postnatal day 9 (P9). NS levels were tested at P5. To test the behavioural hippocampal response to NS in adulthood, animals were implanted with a bilateral cannula into the CA1 hippocampus at 80 days old and injected with Allop (0.2 µg/0.5 µl), Pregnenolone sulphate (5 ng/0.5 µl) or Vehicle in each hippocampus. After injections animals were tested in the Boisser test to assess exploratory behaviour, the elevated plus maze to assess anxiety and the passive avoidance to test aversive learning. Results indicate that alteration of neonatal Allop or pregnenolone levels (by Allop and Finasteride administration, respectively) suppressed intrahippocampal Allop anxiolytic effect in the EPM. Moreover our results also indicate that manipulation of neonatal Allop levels (Allop and Finast administration) alters exploratory and anxiety-like behaviour and impairs aversive learning in the adulthood. These data point out the role of Allop in the maturation of hippocampal function and behaviour.

Allopregnanolone infused into the dorsal (CA1) hippocampus increases prepulse inhibition of startle response in Wistar rats.

The hippocampus is a brain structure that has traditionally been associated with the pathophysiology and neuropathology of schizophrenia. Also, one of the animal models of schizophrenia most widely accepted and validated is the deterioration of prepulse inhibition (PPI). The hippocampus (both dorsal and ventral) seems to be a brain structure important for the PPI since it appears to contribute to sensorimotor gating. A possible role of neurosteroids in schizophrenia has recently been suggested, as clozapine and olanzapine treatments increase brain and plasma levels of the neurosteroid allopregnanolone (AlloP). The aim of the present work is to investigate the effects of the intrahippocampal administration of neurosteroids on prepulse inhibition. For this purpose, we have bilaterally injected AlloP (0.2 µg/0.5 µl) and pregnenolone sulphate (PregS, 5 ng/0.5 µl) into the dorsal CA1 hippocampus, and we have evaluated PPI behavior. Results show that intrahippocampal AlloP increases PPI ability regardless of prepulse intensity (5, 10 or 15 db above background). Intrahippocampal PregS administration, at the dose tested, does not significantly affect PPI performance. The increase in PPI due to intrahippocampal AlloP administration points out the important role of the hippocampus in central sensorimotor gating mechanisms and on the effects of neurosteroids on this behavior. The present findings may contribute to the study of the neurobiological basis of schizophrenia.

Neurosteroids infusion into the CA1 hippocampal region on exploration, anxiety-like behaviour and aversive learning.

Neurosteroids (NS) are substances synthesised de novo in the brain that have rapid modulatory effects on ionotropic receptors. Specifically, NS can act as positive allosteric modulators of GABAA receptors as pregnanolone or allopregnanolone (Allop), or GABAA negative modulators and NMDA positive modulators as pregnenolone (PREG) or dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and their sulphate esters (PREGS and DHEAS). Given this, their role in anxiety and emotional disturbances has been suggested. In addition, NS such as PREGS or DHEAS have demonstrated a promnesic role in several learning tests. The aim of the present work is to highlight the role that the dorsal (CA1) hippocampus plays in the behavioural profile of NS such as Allop and PREGS in tests assessing exploration, anxiety and aversive learning in rats. For this purpose, animals were administered intrahippocampally with Allop (0.2µg/0.5µl), PREGS (5ng/0.5µl) or vehicle in each hippocampus, and tested in the Boissier and elevated plus maze (EPM) tests. For learning test we have chosen the passive avoidance paradigm. Results indicate that intrahippocampal administration of Allop enhances exploration, reflected in an increase in the total and the inner number of head-dips. Allop-injected animals also showed an increase in the percentage of entries into the open arms of the EPM, suggesting an anxiolytic-like profile. In addition, post-acquisition PREGS administration enhanced passive avoidance retention, while post-acquisition Allop administration had no effects on aversive learning retention. These results point out the important role of the dorsal (CA1) hippocampus in several NS behavioural effects, such as exploration, anxiety, learning and memory.