Observing Music Therapy in Dementia: Repeated Single-case Studies Assessing Well-being and Sociable Interaction.

OBJECTIVES: This study compared behavioral expressions of momentary well-being and sociable behavior toward significant others during music therapy and regular social interaction. METHODS: A 10-week active music therapy intervention was provided for people living with dementia and family caregivers. A bi-phasic AB single-case design was replicated for three sessions per dyad and coded using the Observable Well-being in Living with Dementia-Scale (OWLS) and the Verbal and Nonverbal Sociable Interaction Scale-Care Receiver (VNVIS-CR). Effect sizes (Log Response Ratio) were calculated for each session and analyzed with robust cluster meta-analysis. RESULTS: Eleven dyads were included, and 32 sessions analyzed (2102 observations). Within sessions we found a 48% increase in well-being, and a 32% increase in sociable interaction during music therapy. Heterogeneity was high. Dementia severity predicted an increase in nonverbal sociable interaction (93% for moderate dementia). Depression and time did not predict any change. CONCLUSION: The potential of music therapy to increase well-being and sociable interactions toward significant others calls for further investigation of heterogeneity and covariates. Single-case designs are demonstrated to be feasible for these investigations. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Preference-based music therapy may alleviate some of the individual and relational consequences of living with dementia, facilitating positive emotions and connection to significant others.

A Randomized Control Trial of a Brief Self-Compassion Intervention for Perfectionism, Anxiety, Depression, and Body Image.

Objective: Due to a rise in perfectionistic tendencies and growing concerns about the increase in mental health conditions among students this study aimed to examine the effects of a brief intervention in self-compassion on maladaptive perfectionism, anxiety, depression, and body image. Methods: The intervention consisted of four seminars and a silent half-day retreat with short lectures and relevant experiential practices from Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) and Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). This randomized wait-list control trial was pre-registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (ID: NCT03453437, Unique Protocol ID: UiBMSC2018). University students were randomly assigned to the intervention group and wait-list control group and filled out surveys weekly. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the groups pre- and post-treatment. Mixed level modeling was used to analyze changes in all outcome measures over time. Results: Eighty-nine participants completed the intervention. Results of the ANOVA showed significant post-intervention reductions in maladaptive perfectionistic tendencies and symptoms of depression and anxiety, in addition to increased self-compassion and improved body image in the intervention group as compared to the wait-list group. Mixed level modeling showed statistically significant changes in self-compassion, maladaptive perfectionism, adaptive perfectionism, anxiety, and depression but not body image. Only the mixed level modeling showed small but significant changes to adaptive perfectionism, also called strivings. Implications of different changes to maladaptive perfectionism than adaptive perfectionism are discussed.

The Psychometric Properties of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale - Brief.

Previous psychometric analyses of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and the abbreviated version (FMPS-Brief) have resulted in inconsistent findings regarding the scale's bidimensionality or unidimensionality. Different studies evaluating the scale with different statistical analyses and comparative samples report different results and recommendations. This study assessed the FMPS-B's psychometric properties by conducting both confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and pure bifactor modeling in order to address previous findings and guide future use of the scale. The results indicate that the two-factor model is the best fit. Going forward, the FMPS-B's subfactors "strivings" and "evaluative concerns" may be studied separately. Implications for future research and challenges in bifactor modeling are discussed.

A Cross-National Analysis of the Psychometric Properties of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: Assessing late-life anxiety using an instrument with sound psychometric properties including cross-cultural invariance is essential for cross-national aging research and clinical assessment. To date, no cross-national research studies have examined the psychometric properties of the frequently used Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI) in depth. METHOD: Using data from 3,731 older adults from 10 national samples (Australia, Brazil, Canada, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Singapore, Thailand, and United States), this study used bifactor modeling to analyze the dimensionality of the GAI. We evaluated the "fitness" of individual items based on the explained common variance for each item across all nations. In addition, a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was applied, testing for measurement invariance across the samples. RESULTS: Across samples, the presence of a strong G factor provides support that a general factor is of primary importance, rather than subfactors. That is, the data support a primarily unidimensional representation of the GAI, still acknowledging the presence of multidimensional factors. A GAI score in one of the countries would be directly comparable to a GAI score in any of the other countries tested, perhaps with the exception of Singapore. DISCUSSION: Although several items demonstrated relatively weak common variance with the general factor, the unidimensional structure remained strong even with these items retained. Thus, it is recommended that the GAI be administered using all items.

Evaluating an Internet Gaming Disorder Scale Using Mokken Scaling Analysis.

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) was recently included as a condition for further study in the fifth and latest version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The present study investigated whether the IGD criteria comprise a unidimensional construct. Data stemmed from a sample of Norwegians aged 17.5 years in 2012 and 19.5 years in 2014 (N = 1258). The study used the Mokken scale analysis to investigate whether the score of the different items on the IGD scale measured a single latent variable and if the scale functions differently for males and females. Correlation analysis was conducted between the scores on the IGD scale (count) and the Gaming Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GASA, categorical), both assessed in 2014. Negative binomial regression analyses were applied in order to investigate how different predictors of mental health assessed in 2012 were associated with IGD assessed in 2014. The Mokken scale analysis showed that all item-coefficients of homogeneity exceeded 0.3 when the whole sample completed the scale and when females completed the scale, indicating that the items reflect a single latent variable. In both cases moderate (H > 0.40) unidimensionality was shown. The item measuring "tolerance" did not exceed 0.3 in the scale when completed by males, indicating that only eight out of nine items reflect a single latent variable when applied to males only. The eight-item scale containing males showed weak (H > 0.30) unidimensionality. The correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between the scores on the IGD scale and the GASA (r = 0.71, p < 0.01) when assessed simultaneously and a positive but lower correlation (r = 0.48, p < 0.01) when assessed longitudinally. Results from the negative binomial regression analysis showed that previous video-game addiction, being male, depression, aggression and loneliness were significant predictors of IGD. The associations were small for all independent variables except previous video game addiction and gender where the associations were large. Although the results from the correlation analysis and regression analysis showed predictive validity of the scale, the results from the Mokken analysis suggest that the IGD scale may not be applied as a unidimensional scale when the tolerance item is included.

Predictors of Gamblers Beliefs About Responsible Gambling Measures.

Responsible gambling (RG) measures are methods aimed at reducing and preventing negative consequences associated with gambling. Some RG measures are set by authorities or gambling operators while others are available as features for gamblers to use themselves (e.g. budget tools where personal monetary limits are set prior to gambling). The present study is based on a general gambler population and investigates how RG measures with some specific RG features are assessed by the gamblers. The data was collected in 2013 and 2015. The samples were drawn from the Norwegian Population Registry. In total 9129 gamblers participated. Gamblers were asked to state to which degree they agreed that ten specific RG measures help or would help them controlling their gambling. Overall, between 35 and 42% neither agreed nor disagreed, but among those with an opinion, most agreed. A multiple regression analysis identified eleven variables as significant predictors of positive beliefs about RG measures: female gender, young age, playing random games only, being a moderate risk or problem gambler, reporting high impact from gambling advertisements as well as the personality traits agreeableness, openness and neuroticism. Playing low risk games only, reporting a high amount of spending on gambling and the personality trait extraversion were inversely related to positive beliefs about RG measures. The total explained variance was however only 7.1%. Positive beliefs about RG measures can relate to needs for external based countermeasures to minimize or reduce problems. Negative views may reflect a wish to play without obstacles, take risks or to trust in self-control.

Are Video Games a Gateway to Gambling? A Longitudinal Study Based on a Representative Norwegian Sample.

The scope and variety of video games and monetary gambling opportunities are expanding rapidly. In many ways, these forms of entertainment are converging on digital and online video games and gambling sites. However, little is known about the relationship between video gaming and gambling. The present study explored the possibility of a directional relationship between measures of problem gaming and problem gambling, while also controlling for the influence of sex and age. In contrast to most previous investigations which are based on cross-sectional designs and non-representative samples, the present study utilized a longitudinal design conducted over 2 years (2013, 2015) and comprising 4601 participants (males 47.2%, age range 16-74) drawn from a random sample from the general population. Video gaming and gambling were assessed using the Gaming Addiction Scale for Adolescents and the Canadian Problem Gambling Index, respectively. Using an autoregressive cross-lagged structural equation model, we found a positive relationship between scores on problematic gaming and later scores on problematic gambling, whereas we found no evidence of the reverse relationship. Hence, video gaming problems appear to be a gateway behavior to problematic gambling behavior. In future research, one should continue to monitor the possible reciprocal behavioral influences between gambling and video gaming.

A Cross-Lagged Study of Developmental Trajectories of Video Game Engagement, Addiction, and Mental Health.

Objectives: Video game addiction has been associated with an array of mental health variables. There is a paucity of longitudinal studies investigating such associations, and studies differentiating addicted gaming from problem and engaged (i.e., frequent but non-problem) gaming. The current explorative study investigate the natural course of gaming behavior in three sub-studies. The aim of study 1 was to investigate antecedents and consequences of video game addiction measured as a unidimensional construct (pathological gaming). Aim of study 2 was to investigate the same associations in terms of typologies of gamers ("engaged," "problem," "addicted"). Furthermore, study 3 aimed to investigate the estimated stability and transitions occurring between the aforementioned typologies, and a non-pathological gaming group. Methods: A nationally representative sample of 3,000 adolescents aged 17.5 years was drawn from the population registry of Norway in 2012 and invited to participate in annual surveys spanning 3 years (NT1 = 2,059, NT2 = 1,334, NT3 = 1,277). The respondents completed measures of video game addiction, depression, anxiety, loneliness, aggression, and alcohol use disorder. Statistical analysis comprised cross-lagged path modeling, Satorra-Bentler chi square test (study 1), regression analyses (study 2), hidden Markov model of transition probabilities (study 3). Results: Findings in study 1 showed that depression and loneliness were reciprocally associated with pathological gaming. Physical aggression was identified as an antecedent, and anxiety was a consequence of pathological gaming. Investigation of the three typologies of gamers (study 2) identified loneliness and physical aggression as antecedents, and depression as a consequence of all typologies. Depression was found to be an antecedent of problem and engaged gamers. Loneliness was found as a consequence of problem gamers, and anxiety was a consequence of addicted gamers. High alcohol consumption was found antecedent to addicted gamers, and low alcohol consumption was found antecedent to problem gamers. The estimated stability of video game addiction was 35%. Conclusion: A reciprocal relationship between pathological gaming and measures of mental health problems seems to exist. The stability of video game addiction indicates a condition that for a substantial number of people does not resolve spontaneously over the course of 2 years.

Impulse-Control Disorders in Parkinson's Disease: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Case-Control Studies.

BACKGROUND: Although several case-control studies on the prevalence of Impulse-Control Disorders (ICDs) in Parkinson's Disease (PD) have been conducted, no meta-analytic study on this topic has previously been published. Thus, knowledge about the overall prevalence rate of ICD in PD and factors that might moderate this relationship is lacking. METHOD: Prevalence studies of ICDs in PD were identified by computer searches in the MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases, covering the period from January 2000 to February 2017. Data for N = 4,539, consisting of 2,371 PD patients and 2,168 healthy controls, representing 14 case-control studies were included. Estimation of the odds ratio (OR) of ICDs in PD compared to healthy controls was conducted using random-effects models. Mixed-effects models were applied in the moderator analysis of heterogeneity. Publication bias was estimated using a contour-enhanced funnel plot, the Rüker's test, and fail-safe N test for estimating the number of potential missing studies. RESULTS: Overall, the results showed significantly higher ratios for several ICDs in PD compared to healthy controls with the estimated overall ORs ranging between 2.07, 95% CI [1.26, 3.48], for having any ICDs, and 4.26, 95% CI [2.17, 8.36], for hypersexuality. However, the random-effects results for shopping were non-significant, though the fixed-effects model was significant (OR = 1.66, 95%CI [1.21, 2.27]). The testing of potential moderator variables of heterogeneity identified the following two variables that were both associated with increased risk: being medically treated for PD and disease duration. The results must be interpreted with some caution due to possible small-studies effect or publication bias. CONCLUSION: Individuals with PD seem to have a significantly greater risk of suffering from ICDs compared to healthy controls. Gambling, hypersexuality, eating, punding, and hobbying are all ICDs significantly associated with PDs being medically treated for PD.

Does an emotion-focused two-chair dialogue add to the therapeutic effect of the empathic attunement to affect?

An increasing amount of research suggests that it is beneficial to work explicitly with emotions in psychotherapy. Emotion-focused therapy (EFT) utilizes interventions that are thought to enhance the evocativeness of emotional processing and facilitate explorations of new meaning. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of such an intervention on therapeutic outcome. The intervention, a two-chair dialogue drawn from emotion-focused therapy, was added to the treatment conditions that consisted of empathically following the clients' emotional processes. The treatment comprised 2 phases. Using a multiple baseline design, 21 self-critical clients (15 women and 6 men) with clinically significant symptoms of depression and/or anxiety first received 5, 7, or 9 sessions of a baseline treatment focused on alliance building, empathic attunement to affect, and therapeutic presence and genuineness. A two-chair dialogue intervention was then added for 5 sessions. The symptoms were measured before each session using Beck's Depression Inventory, Beck's Anxiety Index, and Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale. An analysis using Hierarchical Linear Modelling revealed that the phase with the two-chair dialogue had a larger impact on symptoms of anxiety and depression when compared to the baseline phase. On BDI-II, there was a greater impact on somatic-affective components than cognitive components. Self-criticism was reduced when we used time as a predictor for both phases but not significantly more after introducing the intervention. The results corroborate that the two-chair dialogue intervention is associated with change beyond what is shown when relationship conditions alone are being provided. Implications and limitations are discussed.

The effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on slot machine gambling behavior.

Background and aims Although alcohol intake and gambling often co-occur in related venues, there is conflicting evidence regarding the effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on gambling behavior. We therefore conducted an experimental investigation of the effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on slot machine gambling behavior. Methods Participants were 184 (females = 94) individuals [age range: 18-40 (mean = 21.9) years] randomized to four independent conditions differing in information/expectancy about beverage (told they received either alcohol or placebo) and beverage intake [actually ingesting low (target blood alcohol concentration [BAC] < 0.40 mg/L) vs. moderate (target BAC > 0.40 mg/L; ≈0.80 mg/L) amounts of alcohol]. All participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing demographic variables, subjective intoxication, alcohol effects (stimulant and sedative), and gambling factors (behavior and problems, evaluation, and beliefs). Participants also gambled on a simulated slot machine. Results A significant main effect of beverage intake on subjective intoxication and alcohol effects was detected as expected. No significant main or interaction effects were detected for number of gambling sessions, bet size and variation, remaining credits at termination, reaction time, and game evaluation. Conclusion Alcohol expectancy and intake do not affect gambling persistence, dissipation of funds, reaction time, or gambling enjoyment.

The Relationships between Mental Health Symptoms and Gambling Behavior in the Transition from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood.

There is a paucity of longitudinal investigations of gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. We conducted a longitudinal investigation of the associations and patterns of change between mental health symptoms and gambling behavior. A representative sample of Norwegians completed questionnaires containing demographic, mental health, and gambling measures at age 17 (N = 2055), and at ages 18 (N = 1334) and 19 (N = 1277). Using latent class analysis, three classes of gambling behavior were identified: consistent non-gambling (71.1%), consistent non-risk gambling (23.8%), and risky-and-problem gambling (5.1%). Being male, showing higher physical and verbal aggression and having more symptoms of depression were associated with greater odds of belonging to the risky-and-problem gambling class at age 17. Overall, the risky-and-problem gambling class had the highest physical and verbal aggression, anxiety, and depression at 19 years. Our findings elucidate the reciprocal relationship between mental health and gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood, and the importance of recognizing these factors in designing targeted interventions.

Not good enough? Further comments to the wording, meaning, and the conceptualization of Internet Gaming Disorder.

In their commentary, Kuss, Griffiths, and Pontes (2016) criticize the use of the term "Internet" in the recently proposed diagnosis for Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and its use as one of the included diagnostic criteria. We agree with the exclusion of the term "Internet" in the diagnosis, but have some considerations to the comments regarding the nine criteria for IGD. Specifically, we discuss the meaning, the wording, and the importance of the criteria, as well as the importance of distress or functional impairment in the proposed diagnosis. We also address the possibility of categorizing IGD as a subtype of a general behavioral addiction diagnosis.

An open trial of mindfulness-based stress reduction for young adults with social anxiety disorder.

The present study investigated mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) for young adults with a social anxiety disorder (SAD) in an open trial. Fifty-three young adults in a higher education setting underwent a standard eight-week MBSR program. Eight participants (15%) did not complete the program. Participants reported significant reductions in SAD symptoms and global psychological distress, as well as increases in mindfulness, self-compassion, and self-esteem. Using intention-to-treat (ITT) analyses, effect sizes ranged from large to moderate for SAD symptoms (Cohen's d = 0.80) and global psychological distress (d = 0.61). Completer analyses yielded large effect sizes for SAD symptoms (d = 0.96) and global psychological distress (d = 0.81). The largest effect sizes were found for self-compassion (d = 1.49) and mindfulness (d = 1.35). Two thirds of the participants who were in the clinical range at pretreatment reported either clinically significant change (37%) or reliable improvement (31%) on SAD symptoms after completing the MBSR program, and almost two thirds reported either clinically significant change (37%) or reliable improvement (26%) on global psychological distress. MBSR may be a beneficial intervention for young adults in higher education with SAD, and there is a need for more research on mindfulness and acceptance-based interventions for SAD.

Prevalence and Predictors of Video Game Addiction: A Study Based on a National Representative Sample of Gamers.

Video gaming has become a popular leisure activity in many parts of the world, and an increasing number of empirical studies examine the small minority that appears to develop problems as a result of excessive gaming. This study investigated prevalence rates and predictors of video game addiction in a sample of gamers, randomly selected from the National Population Registry of Norway (N = 3389). Results showed there were 1.4 % addicted gamers, 7.3 % problem gamers, 3.9 % engaged gamers, and 87.4 % normal gamers. Gender (being male) and age group (being young) were positively associated with addicted-, problem-, and engaged gamers. Place of birth (Africa, Asia, South- and Middle America) were positively associated with addicted- and problem gamers. Video game addiction was negatively associated with conscientiousness and positively associated with neuroticism. Poor psychosomatic health was positively associated with problem- and engaged gaming. These factors provide insight into the field of video game addiction, and may help to provide guidance as to how individuals that are at risk of becoming addicted gamers can be identified.

Trajectories of sleepiness and insomnia symptoms in Norwegian nurses with and without night work and rotational work.

Numerous cross-sectional studies report high prevalence rates of sleepiness and insomnia in shift workers, but few longitudinal studies exist. We investigated trajectories of sleepiness and insomnia symptoms in a sample of Norwegian nurses across four measurements, spanning a total of four years (sleepiness) and five years (insomnia). The participants completed the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and the Bergen Insomnia Scale at each measurement instance. Latent growth curve models were used to analyse the data. Separate models examined night work (night work, entering and leaving night work) and rotational work (rotational work, entering and leaving rotational work) as predictors for trajectories of sleepiness and insomnia symptoms, respectively. Baseline values of sleepiness and insomnia were higher among rotational shift workers than among workers with fixed shifts (day or night). The results showed that night work throughout the period and entering night work during the period were not associated with different trajectories of sleepiness or insomnia symptoms, compared to not having night work. The same results were found for rotational work and entering rotational work, compared to not having rotational work. Leaving night work and leaving rotational work were associated with a decrease in sleepiness and insomnia symptoms, compared to staying in such work.

Problem gambling and the five-factor model of personality: a large population-based study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Knowledge of the personality characteristics of individuals who develop gambling problems is important for designing targeted prevention efforts. Previous studies of the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and gambling problems were based on small samples not representative of the general population. We estimated differences in neuroticism, extroversion, intellect, agreeableness and conscientiousness between non-problem gamblers and individuals with low, moderate and severe gambling problems. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Norway. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 10 081 (51.5% female) individuals aged 16-74 years (mean age 46.5 years). MEASURES: The Problem Gambling Severity Index, The Mini-International Personality Item Pool and demographic variables. Differences between groups of gamblers were analysed by ordinary least-squares regression models separately for each personality trait adjusting for gender, age, cohabitation, level of education and work status. FINDINGS: Gamblers with low, moderate and severe levels of gambling problems differed significantly from non-problem gamblers in neuroticism (b = 0.16, 0.34 and 0.66, respectively, all P < 0.001) and conscientiousness (b = -0.13, -0.28 and -0.44, respectively, all P < 0.001). Moderate and severe problem gamblers differed from non-problem gamblers in agreeableness (b = -0.21, P < 0.001 and b = -0.20, P = 0.028, respectively). In addition, gambling problems were much more prevalent among men than women, and more prevalent among those who live alone, individuals without tertiary education and among those who are unemployed or on disability pension. CONCLUSIONS: A higher level of problem gambling severity appears to be associated with higher scores on neuroticism, and with lower scores on conscientiousness and agreeableness in the Mini-International Personality Item Pool.

A longitudinal study of factors explaining attitude change towards gambling among adolescents.

Background and aims No previous study has investigated changes in attitudes toward gambling from under legal gambling age to legal gambling age. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate attitudinal changes during this transition and to identify predictors of corresponding attitude change. Methods In all 1239 adolescents from a national representative sample participated in two survey waves (Wave 1; 17.5 years; Wave 2; 18.5 years). Results From Wave 1 to Wave 2 the sample became more acceptant toward gambling. A regression analysis showed that when controlling for attitudes toward gambling at Wave 1 males developed more acceptant attitudes than females. Neuroticism was inversely related to development of acceptant attitudes toward gambling from Wave 1 to Wave 2, whereas approval of gambling by close others at Wave 1 was positively associated with development of more acceptant attitudes. Continuous or increased participation in gambling was related to development of more acceptant attitudes from Wave 1 to Wave 2. Conclusions Attitudes toward gambling became more acceptant when reaching legal gambling age. Male gender, approval of gambling by close others and gambling participation predicted development of positive attitudes toward gambling whereas neuroticism was inversely related to development of positive attitudes toward gambling over time.

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTS OF A TREATMENT MANUAL FOR VIDEO GAME ADDICTION.

This study investigated the effects of a manualized therapy for video game addiction in 12 males, ages 14-18 yr. The manual was based on cognitive-behavioral therapy, short-term strategic family therapy, solution-focused therapy, and motivational interviewing. Treatment response was reported by the patients, their mothers, and the therapists. The patients reported moderate (but statistically non-significant) improvement from pre- to post-treatment. The mothers, however, reported large effects and statistically significant improvement from pre- to post-treatment. The therapists reported marked or moderate treatment response in six of the 12 patients. The ratings of change by mothers converged well with the views of change of both the patients and therapists, whereas the convergence of views on change between the two latter sources was far lower.

Prevalence and correlates of anabolic-androgenic steroid use in a nationally representative sample of 17-year-old Norwegian adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use has been identified as a serious public health problem. OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the prevalence and correlates of AAS use among Norwegian adolescents. METHODS: In 2012, a nationally representative sample of 2,055 17-year-old adolescents (963 males and 1,088 females) participated in a survey. The response rate was 70.4%. In addition to questions about AAS use, participants completed the Parental Monitoring Scale, the Family Relations/Cohesion Scale, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test C, the Mini-International Personality Item Pool-Five-Factor Model, the Eysenck Narrow Impulsiveness Subscale, the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking, the Short-Form Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and the UCLA Loneliness Scale. They also answered questions about demography, gambling, smoking, snus, and narcotic use. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalence of AAS use was 0.30% (0.52% in males and 0.09% in females), while current prevalence was 0.25%. Moreover, 19.39% of the sample reported having an acquaintance who used or had used AAS. Having an acquaintance who used or had used AAS was significantly related to snus use, depression, aggression, extraversion, and conscientiousness in both univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. Conclusions/Importance: Our findings suggest a high prevalence of AAS use among Norwegian adolescents and denote the significance of social, personality, and health factors in adolescents' exposure to AAS milieu.