Characterization and comparison of groundwater quality and redox conditions in the Arakawa Lowland and Musashino Upland, southern Kanto Plain of the Tokyo Metropolitan area, Japan.

Groundwater is essential for the Earth biosphere but is often contaminated by harmful chemical compounds due to both anthropogenic and natural causes. A key factor controlling the fate of harmful chemicals in groundwater is the reduction/oxidation (redox) conditions. The formation factors for the groundwater redox conditions are insufficiently understood. In this study, long-term groundwater quality beneath one of the world megacities was monitored and evaluated. We measured and compared hydrogeochemical conditions including groundwater quality (35 chemical parameters) and redox conditions of five aquifers in the Arakawa Lowland and Musashino Upland, southern Kanto Plain of the Tokyo Metropolitan area, Japan. Monitoring results suggested the following: The main origin of groundwater is precipitation in both the Lowland and Upland areas. The three aquifers in the Arakawa Lowland are likely fully separated, with one unconfined and two confined aquifers under iron reducing and methanogenic conditions, respectively. Oppositely, in the Musashino Upland, the water masses in the two aquifers are likely partly connected, under aerobic conditions, and undergoing the same groundwater recharge and flow processes under similar hydrogeological conditions. The different groundwater redox conditions observed are likely caused by the very different groundwater residence times for the Arakawa Lowland and Musashino Upland.

Particle Leaching Rates from a Loamy Soil Are Controlled by the Mineral Fines Content and the Degree of Preferential Flow.

The mobilization and transport of colloid particles in soils can have negative agronomic and environmental effects. This work investigates the controls of particle release and transport from undisturbed soil columns sampled from an agricultural, loamy field with clay and silt contents of 0.05 to 0.14 and 0.07 to 0.16 kg kg, respectively. Forty-five soil columns (20 × 20 cm) were collected from the field and exposed to a constant irrigation of 10 mm h for 8 h. The accumulated mass of particles in the outflow from each column was highly correlated ( = 0.88) with the volumetric mass of fines (MF). The MF is defined as the sum of clay and fine silt (<20 µm) multiplied by the soil bulk density and divided by the particle density of the mineral fines. Thereby, MF represents both the particle source available for mobilization and leaching and an indicator of soil structure. The particle release process showed two linear particle release rates. Although the two particle release rates were distinctly different, both were strongly correlated with MF. The difference between the two rates was related to the degree of preferential flow characterized by the 5% arrival time of an applied tracer pulse. Soil columns with a longer 5% arrival time (less preferential flow) showed a distinct difference between the two rates, whereas soil columns with a short 5% arrival time and fast water transport showed resemblance between the two particle release rates. Thus, the combined effects of particle source, type, and pathways (via soil structure and compaction) need consideration to understand and predict particle transport dynamics through intact topsoil.

Visible-Near-Infrared Spectroscopy can predict Mass Transport of Dissolved Chemicals through Intact Soil.

The intensification of agricultural production to meet the growing demand for agricultural commodities is increasing the use of chemicals. The ability of soils to transport dissolved chemicals depends on both the soil's texture and structure. Assessment of the transport of dissolved chemicals (solutes) through soils is performed using breakthrough curves (BTCs) where the application of a solute at one site and its appearance over time at another are recorded. Obtaining BTCs from laboratory studies is extremely expensive and time- and labour-consuming. Visible-near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy is well recognized for its measurement speed and for its low data acquisition cost and can be used for quantitative estimation of basic soil properties such as clay and organic matter. In this study, for the first time ever, vis-NIR spectroscopy was used to predict dissolved chemical breakthrough curves obtained from tritium transport experiments on a large variety of intact soil columns. Averaged across the field, BTCs were estimated with a high degree of accuracy. So, with vis-NIR spectroscopy, the mass transport of dissolved chemicals can be measured, paving the way for next-generation measurements and monitoring of dissolved chemical transport by spectroscopy.

Effects of Biochar on Dispersibility of Colloids in Agricultural Soils.

The mobility of water-dispersible colloids (WDCs) in soil may be influenced by soil management practices such as organic soil amendments. Biochar has recently been promoted as a useful soil amendment, and extensive research has been devoted to investigating its effects on soil macroscopic properties and functions. However, there is limited understanding of the effects of biochar application on micro-scale particle dynamics. We conducted a field study to investigate the effects of the application of birch ( spp.) wood biochar on colloid dispersibility with respect to application rate, history, and physicochemical soil properties. Undisturbed soil cores (100 cm) were collected from the topsoil of two agricultural sites in Denmark with soils of sandy loam texture. The two sites received biochar at different application rates (0-100 Mg ha) and were sampled 7 to 19 mo later. The WDC content was determined using an end-over-end shaking method on 100-cm intact soil cores, and the colloid solution was analyzed for electrical conductivity, pH, and zeta potential. The WDC content increased with biochar application rate because of biochar-induced changes in soil chemistry and was strongly and positively correlated with the concentration of exchangeable monovalent cations in the soils. Biochar application increased pH and decreased electrical conductivity and zeta potential in the colloid suspension more in the short term (7 mo) than in the long term (19 mo). Thus, there is potential for biochar to induce short-term changes in soil solution chemistry in agricultural soils, which may influence the mobility of soil colloids.

Water and solute transport in agricultural soils predicted by volumetric clay and silt contents.

Solute transport through the soil matrix is non-uniform and greatly affected by soil texture, soil structure, and macropore networks. Attempts have been made in previous studies to use infiltration experiments to identify the degree of preferential flow, but these attempts have often been based on small datasets or data collected from literature with differing initial and boundary conditions. This study examined the relationship between tracer breakthrough characteristics, soil hydraulic properties, and basic soil properties. From six agricultural fields in Denmark, 193 intact surface soil columns 20cm in height and 20cm in diameter were collected. The soils exhibited a wide range in texture, with clay and organic carbon (OC) contents ranging from 0.03 to 0.41 and 0.01 to 0.08kgkg(-1), respectively. All experiments were carried out under the same initial and boundary conditions using tritium as a conservative tracer. The breakthrough characteristics ranged from being near normally distributed to gradually skewed to the right along with an increase in the content of the mineral fines (particles ≤50µm). The results showed that the mineral fines content was strongly correlated to functional soil structure and the derived tracer breakthrough curves (BTCs), whereas the OC content appeared less important for the shape of the BTC. Organic carbon was believed to support the stability of the soil structure rather than the actual formation of macropores causing preferential flow. The arrival times of 5% and up to 50% of the tracer mass were found to be strongly correlated with volumetric fines content. Predicted tracer concentration breakthrough points as a function of time up to 50% of applied tracer mass could be well fitted to an analytical solution to the classical advection-dispersion equation. Both cumulative tracer mass and concentration as a function of time were well predicted from the simple inputs of bulk density, clay and silt contents, and applied tracer mass. The new concept seems promising as a platform towards more accurate proxy functions for dissolved contaminant transport in intact soil.

Temperature change affected groundwater quality in a confined marine aquifer during long-term heating and cooling.

Global warming and urbanization together with development of subsurface infrastructures (e.g. subways, shopping complexes, sewage systems, and Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) systems) will likely cause a rapid increase in the temperature of relatively shallow groundwater reservoirs (subsurface thermal pollution). However, potential effects of a subsurface temperature change on groundwater quality due to changed physical, chemical, and microbial processes have received little attention. We therefore investigated changes in 34 groundwater quality parameters during a 13-month enhanced-heating period, followed by 14 months of natural or enhanced cooling in a confined marine aquifer at around 17 m depth on the Saitama University campus, Japan. A full-scale GSHP test facility consisting of a 50 m deep U-tube for circulating the heat-carrying fluid and four monitoring wells at 1, 2, 5, and 10 m from the U-tube were installed, and groundwater quality was monitored every 1-2 weeks. Rapid changes in the groundwater level in the area, especially during the summer, prevented accurate analyses of temperature effects using a single-well time series. Instead, Dual-Well Analysis (DWA) was applied, comparing variations in subsurface temperature and groundwater chemical concentrations between the thermally-disturbed well and a non-affected reference well. Using the 1 m distant well (temperature increase up to 7 °C) and the 10 m distant well (non-temperature-affected), the DWA showed an approximately linear relationships for eight components (B, Si, Li, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Mg(2+), NH4(+), Na(+), and K(+)) during the combined 27 months of heating and cooling, suggesting changes in concentration between 4% and 31% for a temperature change of 7 °C.

Effects of biochar on air and water permeability and colloid and phosphorus leaching in soils from a natural calcium carbonate gradient.

Application of biochar to agricultural fields to improve soil quality has increased in popularity in recent years, but limited attention is generally paid to existing field conditions before biochar application. This study examined the short-term physicochemical effects of biochar amendment in an agricultural field in Denmark with a calcium carbonate (CaCO) gradient. The field comprised four reference plots and four plots to which biochar (birch wood pyrolyzed at 500°C) was applied at a rate of 20 t ha. Five undisturbed soil columns (10 cm diam., 8 cm height) were sampled from each plot 7 mo after biochar application, and a series of leaching experiments was conducted. The leachate was analyzed for tritium (used as a tracer), colloids, and phosphorus concentration. The results revealed that the presence of CaCO has resulted in marked changes in soil structure (bulk density) and soil chemical properties (e.g., pH and ionic strength), which significantly affected air and water transport and colloid and phosphorous leaching. In denser soils (bulk density, 1.57-1.69 g cm) preferential flow dominated the transport and caused an enhanced movement of air and water, whereas in less dense soils (bulk density, 1.38-1.52 g cm) matrix flow predominated the transport. Compared with reference soils, biochar-amended soils showed slightly lower air permeability and a shorter travel time for 5% of the applied tracer (tritium) to leach through the soil columns. Colloid and phosphorus leaching was observed to be time dependent in soils with low CaCO. Biochar-amended soils showed higher colloid and P release than reference soils. Field-scale variations in total colloid and P leaching reflected clear effects of changes in pH and ionic strength due to the presence of CaCO. There was a linear relationship between colloid and P concentrations in the leachate, suggesting that colloid-facilitated P leaching was the dominant P transport mechanism.

Comparative mapping of soil physical-chemical and structural parameters at field scale to identify zones of enhanced leaching risk.

Preferential flow and particle-facilitated transport through macropores contributes significantly to the transport of strongly sorbing substances such as pesticides and phosphorus. The aim of this study was to perform a field-scale characterization of basic soil physical properties like clay and organic carbon content and investigate whether it was possible to relate these to derived structural parameters such as bulk density and conservative tracer parameters and to actual particle and phosphorus leaching patterns obtained from laboratory leaching experiments. Sixty-five cylindrical soil columns of 20-cm height and 20-cm diameter and bulk soil were sampled from the topsoil in a 15-m × 15-m grid in an agricultural loamy field. Highest clay contents and highest bulk densities were found in the northern part of the field. Leaching experiments with a conservative tracer showed fast 5% tracer arrival times and high tracer recovery percentages from columns sampled from the northern part of the field, and the leached mass of particles and particulate phosphorus was also largest from this area. Strong correlations were obtained between 5% tracer arrival time, tracer recovery, and bulk density, indicating that a few well-aligned and better connected macropores might change the hydraulic conductivity between the macropores and the soil matrix, triggering an onset of preferential flow at lower rain intensities compared with less compacted soil. Overall, a comparison mapping of basic and structural characteristics including soil texture, bulk density, dissolved tracer, particle and phosphorus transport parameters identified the northern one-third of the field as a zone with higher leaching risk. This risk assessment based on parameter mapping from measurements on intact samples was in good agreement with 9 yr of pesticide detections in two horizontal wells and with particle and phosphorus leaching patterns from a distributed, shallow drainage pipe system across the field.

Effects of past copper contamination and soil structure on copper leaching from soil.

Copper contamination affects biological, chemical, and physical soil properties and associated ecological functions. Changes in soil pore organization as a result of Cu contamination can dramatically affect flow and contaminant transport in polluted soils. This study assessed the influence of soil structure on the movement of water and Cu in a long-term polluted soil. Undisturbed soil cores collected along a Cu gradient (from about 20 to about 3800 mg Cu kg soil) were scanned using X-ray computed tomography (CT). Leaching experiments were performed to analyze tracer transport, colloid leaching, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and Cu losses. The 5% arrival time () and apparent dispersivity (λ) for tracer breakthrough were calculated by fitting the experimental data to a nonparametric, double-lognormal probability density function. Soil bulk density, which did not follow the Cu gradient, was the main driver of preferential flow, while macroporosity determined by X-ray CT (for pores >180 µm) proved the best predictor of solute transport. Higher preferential flow due to the presence of well-aligned pores and small cracks controlled water movement in compacted soil. Transport of Cu was rapid during the first flush (≈1 pore volume) in association with the movement of colloid particles, followed by slower transport in association with the movement of DOC in the soil solution. The relative amount of Cu released was strongly correlated with macroporosity as determined by X-ray CT, indicating the promising potential of this visualization technique for predicting contaminant transport through soil.

Effects of dry bulk density and particle size fraction on gas transport parameters in variably saturated landfill cover soil.

Landfill sites are emerging in climate change scenarios as a significant source of greenhouse gases. The compacted final soil cover at landfill sites plays a vital role for the emission, fate and transport of landfill gases. This study investigated the effects of dry bulk density, ρ(b), and particle size fraction on the main soil-gas transport parameters - soil-gas diffusivity (D(p)/D(o), ratio of gas diffusion coefficients in soil and free air) and air permeability (k(a)) - under variably-saturated moisture conditions. Soil samples were prepared by three different compaction methods (Standard and Modified Proctor compaction, and hand compaction) with resulting ρ(b) values ranging from 1.40 to 2.10 g cm(-3). Results showed that D(p) and k(a) values for the '+gravel' fraction (<35 mm) became larger than for the '-gravel' fraction (<2mm) under variably-saturated conditions for a given soil-air content (ε), likely due to enhanced gas diffusion and advection through less tortuous, large-pore networks. The effect of dry bulk density on D(p) and k(a) was most pronounced for the '+gravel' fraction. Normalized ratios were introduced for all soil-gas parameters: (i) for gas diffusivity D(p)/D(f), the ratio of measured D(p) to D(p) in total porosity (f), (ii) for air permeability k(a)/k(a)(,pF4.1), the ratio of measured k(a) to k(a) at 1235 kPa matric potential (=pF 4.1), and (iii) for soil-air content, the ratio of soil-air content (ε) to total porosity (f) (air saturation). Based on the normalized parameters, predictive power-law models for D(p)(ε/f) and k(a)(ε/f) models were developed based on a single parameter (water blockage factor M for D(p) and P for k(a)). The water blockage factors, M and P, were found to be linearly correlated to ρ(b) values, and the effects of dry bulk density on D(p) and k(a) for both '+gravel' and '-gravel' fractions were well accounted for by the new models.

Photodegradation of the synthetic fragrance OTNE and the bactericide triclosan adsorbed on dried loamy sand--results from models and experiments.

Fragrances such as OTNE (marketed as Iso-E-Super®) and bactericides such as triclosan (marketed as Igrasan) are present in waste water and thus finally sorbed to sewage sludge. With that sludge they can reach agricultural fields where they potentially can undergo photodegradation processes. In this study the photodegradation of OTNE and triclosan on dried loamy sand was measured under artificial sunlight conditions in laboratory experiments. These compounds were artificially added with concentrations of 1 µg g(-1) on pre-rinsed dried loamy sand. The decrease in concentration with light irradiation was measured for 32d in comparison to soil samples without light irradiation. The estimated light source intensity was 27 W m(-2). Within the experiment, the apparent half-life was 7 and 17d for OTNE and triclosan respectively. The decrease did not simply follow first-order kinetics. The apparent rate constant decreased in the latter stage of reaction, suggesting that part of the chemicals were inaccessible for degradation. Two models, i.e., a diffusion-limited model, and a light penetration-limited model, were used in comparison to the measured data to explain the observed degradation limitations in the latter stages of the experiments. Comparing the hereby obtained model parameters with estimated physico-chemical parameters for the soil and the two chemical compounds, the light penetration-limited model, in which the degradation in the soil surface layer is assumed to be limited due to the shading effect of light in the upper thin soil layer, showed to be the most realistic in describing the photodegradation.

Gas-phase diffusivity and tortuosity of structured soils.

Modeling gas-phase diffusion of volatile contaminants in the unsaturated zone relies on soil-gas diffusivity models often developed for repacked and structureless soil columns. These suffer from the flaw of not reflecting preferential diffusion through voids and fractures in the soil, thus possibly causing an underestimation of vapor migration towards building foundations and vapor intrusion to indoor environments. We measured the ratio of the gas diffusion coefficient in soil and in free air (D(p)/D(0)) for 42 variously structured, intact, and unsaturated soil cores taken from 6 Danish sites. Whilst the results from structureless fine sand were adequately described using previously proposed models, results that were obtained from glacial clay till and limestone exhibited a dual-porosity behavior. Instead, these data were successfully described using a dual-porosity model for gas-phase diffusivity, considering a presence of drained fractures surrounded by a lower diffusivity matrix. Based on individual model fits, the tortuosity of fractures in till and limestone was found to be highest in samples with a total porosity <40%, suggesting soil compaction to affect the geometry of the fractures. In summary, this study highlights a potential order of magnitude underestimation associated in the use of classical models for prediction of subsurface gas-phase diffusion coefficients in heterogeneous and fractured soils.

Variability of soil potential for biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a heterogeneous subsurface.

Quantifying the spatial variability of factors affecting natural attenuation of hydrocarbons in the unsaturated zone is important to (i) performing a reliable risk assessment and (ii) evaluating the possibility for bioremediation of petroleum-polluted sites. Most studies to date have focused on the shallow unsaturated zone. Based on a data set comprising analysis of about 100 soil samples taken in a 16 m-deep unsaturated zone polluted with volatile petroleum compounds, we statistically and geostatistically analysed values of essential soil properties. The subsurface of the site was highly layered, resulting in an accumulation of pollution within coarse sandy lenses. Air-filled porosity, readily available phosphorous, and the first-order rate constant (k(1)) of benzene obtained from slurry biodegradation experiments were found to depend on geologic sample characterization (P<0.05), while inorganic nitrogen was homogenously distributed across the soil stratigraphy. Semivariogram analysis showed a spatial continuity of 4-8.6 m in the vertical direction, while it was 2-5 times greater in the horizontal direction. Values of k(1) displayed strong spatial autocorrelation. Even so, the soil potential for biodegradation was highly variable, which from autoregressive state-space modeling was partly explained by changes in soil air-filled porosity and gravimetric water content. The results suggest considering biological heterogeneity when evaluating the fate of contaminants in the subsurface.

Soil Physical Constraints on Intrinsic Biodegradation of Petroleum Vapors in a Layered Subsurface.

Naturally occurring biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in the vadose zone depends on the physical soil environment influencing field-scale gas exchange and pore-scale microbial metabolism. In this study, we evaluated the effect of soil physical heterogeneity on biodegradation of petroleum vapors in a 16-m-deep, layered vadose zone. Soil slurry experiments (soil/water ratio 10:30 w/w, 25°C) on benzene biodegradation under aerobic and well-mixed conditions indicated that the biodegradation potential in different textured soil samples was related to soil type rather than depth, in the order: sandy loam > fine sand > limestone. Similarly, O(2) consumption rates during in situ respiration tests performed at the site were higher in the sandy loam than in the fine sand, although the difference was less significant than in the slurries. Laboratory and field data generally agreed well and suggested a significant potential for aerobic biodegradation, even with nutrient-poor and deep subsurface conditions. In slurries of the sandy loam, the biodegradation potential declined with increasing in situ water saturation (i.e., decreasing air-filled porosity in the field). This showed a relation between antecedent undisturbed field conditions and the slurry biodegradation potential, and suggested airfilled porosity to be a key factor for the intrinsic biodegradation potential in the field.

Air permeability of compost as related to bulk density and volumetric air content.

Compost air permeability controls air flow through compost during composting or when using compost as biofilter material. Air permeability is therefore an important characteristic of compost. The relationships between air permeability (k(a)) in compost and compost dry bulk density (rho b), gravimetric water content (omega), and volumetric air content (epsilon) was investigated for two types of composts. The composts used were produced from a digested sewage sludge-straw mixture and from garden waste and measurements were conducted on sieved and repacked 100 cm3 compost samples. Results showed a linear relation between log(k(a)) and rho b at constant values of omega for both composts, indicating an exponential relationship between k(a) and rho b. The slopes of these relationships generally became more negative with increasing rho b. The results further showed a linear relationship between log(k(a)) and log(epsilon) for both composts as also often observed for soils. It was observed that the log(k(a)) and log(epsilon) relationships for the garden waste compost all intercepted at the same location despite having very different slopes. This means that it is possible to predict the entire k(a)-epsilon relationship using only one measurement of corresponding (k(a), epsilon) for garden waste. It was not possible to determine whether this was also the case for the sewage sludge compost due to difficulties in sample preparation at low and high water content.

Evaluating effects of wind-induced pressure fluctuations on soil-atmosphere gas exchange at a landfill using stochastic modelling.

The impact of wind turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations at the soil surface on landfill gas transport and emissions to the atmosphere at an old Danish landfill site was investigated using stochastic modelling combined with soil property and gas transport data measured at the site. The impacts of soil physical properties (including air permeability and volumetric water content) and wind-induced pressure fluctuation properties (amplitude and temporal correlation) on landfill gas emissions to the atmosphere were evaluated. Soil-air permeability and pressure fluctuation amplitude were found to be the most important parameters. Wind-induced gas emissions were further compared with gas emissions caused by diffusion and by long-term pressure variations (due to passing weather systems). Here diffusion and wind-induced gas transport were found to be equally important with wind-induced gas transport becoming the most important at lower soil-air contents.

Relating landfill gas emissions to atmospheric pressure using numerical modelling and state-space analysis.

Landfill gas (CO2 and CH4) concentrations and fluxes in soil adjacent to an old, unlined Danish municipal landfill measured over a 48-hour period during the passage of a low-pressure weather system were used to identify processes governing gas fluxes and concentrations. Two different approaches were applied: (I) State-space analysis was used to identify relations between gas flux and short-term (hourly) variations in atmospheric pressure. (II) A numerical gas transport model was fitted to the data and used to quantify short-term impacts of variations in atmospheric pressure, volumetric soil-water content, soil gas permeability, soil gas diffusion coefficients, and biological CH4 degradation rate upon landfill gas concentration and fluxes in the soil. Fluxes and concentrations were found to be most sensitive to variations in volumetric soil water content, atmospheric pressure variations and gas permeability whereas variations in CH4 oxidation rate and molecular coefficients had less influence. Fluxes appeared to be most sensitive to atmospheric pressure at intermediate distances from the landfill edge. Also overall CH4 fluxes out of the soil over longer periods (years) were largest during periods with rapidly decreasing atmospheric pressures resulting in emission of large amounts of CH4 during short periods of time. This effect, however, was less significant for the CO2 fluxes.

Linking landfill hydrology and leachate chemical composition at a controlled municipal landfill (Kåstrup, Denmark) using state-space analysis.

Leachate production and composition data for a municipal landfill measured over a 25-year period was used to investigate important processes and parameters. Long-term leachate production could be satisfactorily predicted from a simple top-layer landfill hydrology model while short-term predictions were less accurate, likely due to water storage in the waste. State-space and multiple regression modelling were used to identify relations between different parameters. State-space models proved most accurate in fitting measured data, likely because temporal correlation between measurements is accounted for unlike multiple regression. State-space modelling showed that temporal correlation in leachate production must be taken into account and confirmed that water storage inside the landfill is important. Temporal correlation is also important when predicting pH and chloride concentrations but less so for BOD5 and NH3/NH4+concentrations. Leachate flow did in general not have a strong impact upon leachate composition, small effects were observed for Cl-, and NH3/NH4+ concentrations. It was also observed that the mass load of nitrogen from the landfill was strongly dependent upon leachate nitrogen (ammonia/ammonium) concentrations and to a lesser degree upon leachate flow rates. This study introduces state-space modelling in solid waste management as a powerful tool to identify governing parameters for hydrological and bio-chemical processes.