Programmed Death Ligand 1: Unveiling its Impact on Endometrial Carcinogenesis.

Endometrial cancer is a commonly diagnosed gynecological malignancy presenting an increasing incidence worldwide. The immune response plays a crucial role in the mechanisms underlying carcinogenesis and the progression of tumors. In recent times, there has been a discernible surge in the acknowledgment of the importance of programmed death ligand 1 (PDL1) in evading the immunological response of the host and promoting the growth of malignancies. The primary aim of this review is to consolidate the existing corpus of evidence pertaining to the role of PDL1 in the etiology and progression of endometrial cancer and investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in the expression of PDL1 in cells impacted by endometrial cancer. Finally, the association between PDL1 expression and clinical outcomes, as well as the potential therapeutic uses of targeting the PDL1 pathway are being analyzed.

Comparison of the mutation spectrum and association with pre and post treatment lipid measures of children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) from eight European countries.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is commonly caused by mutations in the LDLR, APOB or PCSK9 genes, with untreated mean low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations being elevated in APOB mutation carriers, even higher in LDLR mutation and highest in those with a PCSK9 mutation. Here we examine this in children with FH from Norway, UK, The Netherlands, Belgium, Czech Republic, Austria, Portugal and Greece. METHODS: Differences in characteristics and pre- and post-treatment lipid concentrations in those with different molecular causes were compared by standard statistical tests. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 2866 children, of whom 2531 (88%) carried a reported LDLR/APOB/PCSK9 variant. In all countries, the most common cause of FH was an LDLR mutation (79% of children, 297 different), but the prevalence of the APOB p.(Arg3527Gln) mutation varied significantly (ranging from 0% in Greece to 39% in Czech Republic, p < 2.2 × 10-16). The prevalence of a family history of premature CHD was significantly higher in children with an LDLR vs APOB mutation (16% vs 7% p=0.0005). Compared to the LDLR mutation group, mean (±SD) concentrations of pre-treatment LDL-C were significantly lower in those with an APOB mutation (n = 2260 vs n = 264, 4.96 (1.08)mmol/l vs 5.88 (1.41)mmol/l, p < 2.2 × 10-16) and lowest in those with a PCSK9 mutation (n = 7, 4.71 (1.22)mmol/l). CONCLUSIONS: The most common cause of FH in children from eight European countries was an LDLR mutation, with the prevalence of the APOB p.(Arg3527Gln) mutation varying significantly across countries. In children, LDLR-FH is associated with higher concentrations of LDL-C and family history of CHD compared to those with APOB-FH.

Ethical Challenges in Organoid Use.

Organoids hold great promises for numerous applications in biomedicine and biotechnology. Despite its potential in science, organoid technology poses complex ethical challenges that may hinder any future benefits for patients and society. This study aims to analyze the multifaceted ethical issues raised by organoids and recommend measures that must be taken at various levels to ensure the ethical use and application of this technology. Organoid technology raises several serious ethics issues related to the source of stem cells for organoid creation, informed consent and privacy of cell donors, the moral and legal status of organoids, the potential acquisition of human "characteristics or qualities", use of gene editing, creation of chimeras, organoid transplantation, commercialization and patentability, issues of equity in the resulting treatments, potential misuse and dual use issues and long-term storage in biobanks. Existing guidelines and regulatory frameworks that are applicable to organoids are also discussed. It is concluded that despite the serious ethical challenges posed by organoid use and biobanking, we have a moral obligation to support organoid research and ensure that we do not lose any of the potential benefits that organoids offer. In this direction, a four-step approach is recommended, which includes existing regulations and guidelines, special regulatory provisions that may be needed, public engagement and continuous monitoring of the rapid advancements in the field. This approach may help maximize the biomedical and social benefits of organoid technology and contribute to future governance models in organoid technology.

Characterization and prevalence of two novel CHEK2 large deletions in Greek breast cancer patients.

Germline CHEK2 mutations confer increased cancer risk, for breast and other types, which is variable depending on the specific mutation. Of these, Large Genomic Rearrangements (LGRs) have been rarely reported; to date only eight LGRs have been published with just the Czech founder mutation, the deletion of exons 9 and 10, being molecularly characterized and studied extensively. The present study aimed to molecularly define and determine the contribution of two rare, apparently novel CHEK2 LGRs, among Greek breast cancer patients. These specifically involve a ~6 kb in-frame deletion of exons 2 & 3 that removes CHEK2's FHA domain and a ~7.5 kb in-frame deletion of exon 6, which removes an α-helix of CHEK2's kinase domain. The latter was identified in 5 out of 2355 (0.22%) patients tested, while haplotype analysis revealed a common disease-associated haplotype, suggesting a single common ancestor and a Greek founder. Although in-frame, this LGR is predicted to be damaging by a yeast-based functional assay and structure-function predictions. The present study highlights the existence of rare, population-specific, genomic events in a known breast cancer predisposing gene, which can explain a proportion of hereditary breast cancer. Identification of such mutation carriers is rather important since appropriate clinical actionability will be inferred.

Genetic analysis and clinical description of Greek patients with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome: Creation of a National Registry.

Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) is a rare autosomal dominant disorder caused by germline mutations in the STK11 tumor suppressor gene. PJS patients face a cumulative cancer risk as high as 93% for all sites combined. The present study reports the spectrum of STK11 mutations in eight families with clinical diagnosis of PJS, summarizes the clinical characteristics of sixteen mutation carriers and launches a National Registry for PJS in Greece. STK11 loss-of-function (LoF) mutations were detected in 87.5% of index patients. Carriers presented with their first manifestation at a median age of 24.9 years, while early-onset breast cancer was the most frequent malignancy observed, highlighting the need for breast surveillance. Out of the deleterious STK11 mutations identified, two were novel: c.375_376delGT and c.676_679dupAACG, with 57.2% of these potentially occurring de novo. Using all available clinical and genetic data, the National Registry for Greek PJS was established in an attempt to better characterize the syndrome and raise awareness among patients and clinicians (available at https://www.peutzjeghersgreece.org). This is the first comprehensive genetic analysis and clinical characterization of Greek PJS patients, where a high incidence of breast cancer was observed and the first attempt to centralize all data in a National Registry.

Public and physician's expectations and ethical concerns about electronic health record: Benefits outweigh risks except for information security.

INTRODUCTION: Electronic Health Record systems (EHRs) offer numerous benefits in health care but also pose certain risks. As we progress toward the implementation of EHRs, a more in-depth understanding of attitudes that influence overall levels of EHR support is required. OBJECTIVES: To record public and physicians' awareness, expectations for, and ethical concerns about the use of EHRs. METHODS: A convenience sample was surveyed for both the public and physicians. The Public's Questionnaire was distributed to the public in a printed and an online version. The Physicians' Questionnaire was distributed to physicians in an online version. The questionnaires requested demographic characteristics followed by close-ended questions enquiring about awareness, perceived impact, perceived risks, and ethical issues raised by EHR use. RESULTS: In total, 46% of the public and 91% of physicians were aware of EHRs. Physicians' and public opinions were comparable concerning the positive impact of EHRs on better, more effective, and faster decisions on the patients' health, on better coordination between hospitals/clinics and on quality and reduced cost of health care. However, physicians were concerned that an EHR system would be a burden for their finances, for their time concerning training on the system, for their everyday workload and workflow. The majority of the public generally agreed that they would worry about the possibility that a non-authorized, third party might gain access to their personal health information (48.8%), and that they would worry about future discriminations due to possible disclosure of their health information (48.8%). Most physicians disagreed that EHRs will disrupt the doctor-patient relationship (58.1%) but they would worry about the safety of their patients' information (53.1%). Overall, both the public and physicians were in favor of the implementation of an EHR system, evaluating that possible benefits are more important than possible risks. The majority of the public believed that physicians should have full access to an EHR (90.9%), whereas nursing staff, pharmacists, laboratory staff, and other healthcare professional should have partial access. CONCLUSIONS: The factors identified in the present study present actionable insights that may increase awareness about EHRs. The survey illustrates that both the public and physicians acknowledge the benefits and support EHRs on the condition that sufficient guarantees are provided about privacy and security.

Genetic causes of monogenic familial hypercholesterolemia in the Greek population: Lessons, mistakes, and the way forward.

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a leading cause of premature atherosclerosis. Genetic defects in the LDLR, APOB and PCSK9 genes cause FH, and confirmation of a gene defect is essential for an indisputable diagnosis of the disease. FH is underdiagnosed and we aimed to revise the genetic defects that have been characterized in FH patients of Greek origin and define an effective, future strategy for genetic studies. A literature search was performed in MEDLINE and EMBASE on genetic studies with FH patients of Greek origin. To date, no APOB and PCSK9 mutations have been found in the Greek population. It must be noted however, that only a small number of patients has been screened for PCSK9 mutations. In total, 41 LDLR defects have been characterized, with 6 common mutations c.1646G>A (p.Gly546Asp), c.858C>A (p.Ser286Arg), c.81C>G (p.Cys27Trp), c.1285G>A (p.Val429Met), c.517T>C (p.Cys173Arg), and c.1775G>A (p.Gly592Glu) that account for >80% of all mutations. Due to geographic isolation, ​founder mutations exist in a subpopulation in North West Greece and the Greek Cypriot population but not in the general population. Genetic testing should focus primarily on LDLR, and subsequently on PCSK9 and APOB. The Greek population is genetically homogeneous, which allows for a quick molecular diagnosis of the disease. Cascade screening is feasible and will certainly facilitate the identification of additional patients.

Awareness, attitudes and perspectives of direct-to-consumer genetic testing in Greece: a survey of potential consumers.

Direct-to-consumer genetic testing (DTCGT) is now offered by numerous companies. The present survey aimed to explore awareness, interest, reasons to take and refuse DTCGT, and understanding of results amongst 725 higher education students in Greece. A third of the responders were aware of DTCGT and interest was dependent on cost. More than 60% of the participants would undergo DTCGT to learn more about their health, to warn their children, so that their doctor can monitor their health and change their lifestyle. Nevertheless, they would prefer to consult their doctor first and expressed concerned about their personal data. After receiving results from a hypothetical DTC genetic test predicting higher risk for colon cancer, 59.5% of the responders thought that they could understand the results but 46.1% believed that the results have diagnostic value. In total, 83.6% of the participants would ask their doctor to explain the results and 70.4% would discuss results with their family. In conclusion, the majority of higher education students in Greece appreciate the benefits of genetic testing but with the involvement of their doctor. A physician's participation in the process and informing the public about the true value of genetic testing, are crucial to avoid misinterpretation of DTCGT results.

Refinement of variant selection for the LDL cholesterol genetic risk score in the diagnosis of the polygenic form of clinical familial hypercholesterolemia and replication in samples from 6 countries.

BACKGROUND: Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an autosomal-dominant disorder caused by mutations in 1 of 3 genes. In the 60% of patients who are mutation negative, we have recently shown that the clinical phenotype can be associated with an accumulation of common small-effect LDL cholesterol (LDL-C)-raising alleles by use of a 12-single nucleotide polymorphism (12-SNP) score. The aims of the study were to improve the selection of SNPs and replicate the results in additional samples. METHODS: We used ROC curves to determine the optimum number of LDL-C SNPs. For replication analysis, we genotyped patients with a clinical diagnosis of FH from 6 countries for 6 LDL-C-associated alleles. We compared the weighted SNP score among patients with no confirmed mutation (FH/M-), those with a mutation (FH/M+), and controls from a UK population sample (WHII). RESULTS: Increasing the number of SNPs to 33 did not improve the ability of the score to discriminate between FH/M- and controls, whereas sequential removal of SNPs with smaller effects/lower frequency showed that a weighted score of 6 SNPs performed as well as the 12-SNP score. Metaanalysis of the weighted 6-SNP score, on the basis of polymorphisms in CELSR2 (cadherin, EGF LAG 7-pass G-type receptor 2), APOB (apolipoprotein B), ABCG5/8 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family G (WHITE), member 5/8], LDLR (low density lipoprotein receptor), and APOE (apolipoprotein E) loci, in the independent FH/M- cohorts showed a consistently higher score in comparison to the WHII population (P < 2.2 × 10(-16)). Modeling in individuals with a 6-SNP score in the top three-fourths of the score distribution indicated a >95% likelihood of a polygenic explanation of their increased LDL-C. CONCLUSIONS: A 6-SNP LDL-C score consistently distinguishes FH/M- patients from healthy individuals. The hypercholesterolemia in 88% of mutation-negative patients is likely to have a polygenic basis.

POR*28 SNP is associated with lipid response to atorvastatin in children and adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia.

BACKGROUND: In children and adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) pharmacotherapy with statins is the cornerstone in the current regimen to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) and premature coronary heart disease risk. There is, however, a great interindividual variation in response to therapy, partially attributed to genetic factors. The polymorphic enzyme POR transfers electrons from NADPH to CYP450 enzymes including CYP3A, which metabolize atorvastatin. POR*28 polymorphism is associated with increased CYP3A enzyme activity. We analyzed the association of POR*28 allele with response to atorvastatin. MATERIALS & METHODS: One hundred and five FH children and adolescents treated with atorvastatin at doses 10-40 mg were included in the study. Total cholesterol (TChol) and LDLc were measured at baseline and after 6 months of treatment. POR*28 allele was analyzed with TaqMan assay. CYP3A4*22, CYP3A5*3 and SLCO1B1 521T>C and 388A>G genotypes were also determined with TaqMan or PCR-RFLP methods. RESULTS: POR*28 carriers had significantly lower percent mean reduction of TChol (33.1% in *1/*1, 29.8% in *1/*28 and 25.9% in *28/*28 individuals, p = 0.045) and of LDLc (43.9% in *1/*1, 40.9% in *1/*28 and 30.8% in *28/*28 individuals, p = 0.013). In multivariable linear regression adjusted for confounding factors, POR*28 genotypes, additionally to baseline cholesterol level, accounted for an estimated 8.3% and 7.3% of overall variability in % TChol and LDLc reduction (ß: 4.05; 95% CI: 1.73-6.37; p = 0.001 and ß: 5.08; 95% CI: 1.62-8.54; p = 0.004, respectively). CYP3A4*22, CYP3A5*3 and SLCO1B1 521T>C and 388A>G polymorphisms were not associated with lipid reductions and did not modify the effect of POR*28 on atorvastatin response. CONCLUSION: In children with FH, carriage of POR*28 allele is associated with reduced effect of atorvastatin on TChol and LDLc and therefore identifies FH children that may require higher atorvastatin doses to achieve full therapeutic benefits. Additional studies in different populations are needed to replicate this association.

Familial Hypercholesterolemia in Greek children and their families: genotype-to-phenotype correlations and a reconsideration of LDLR mutation spectrum.

OBJECTIVE: Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a common lipid metabolism disease, resulting in premature atherosclerosis, even from childhood. We aimed to define the genetic basis of FH in children and their families, to refine the spectrum of Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor gene (LDLR) mutations and identify genotype-to-phenotype correlations in patients of Greek origin. METHODS: LDLR was analyzed in 561 patients from 262 families, by whole-gene sequencing. RESULTS: Children with identified LDLR mutations showed higher lipid levels compared to non-carriers. Molecular analysis identified a mutation in 53.4% of index cases. Twenty six LDLR mutations were identified, including 19 point mutations, 2 nonsense mutations, 3 splice site mutations and 2 small insertions. Amongst patients with common mutations, carriers of c.1646G > A and c.1285G > A showed higher lipid levels, whereas carriers of c.858C > A and c.81C > G showed a milder phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: The spectrum of LDLR mutations in Greece is refined and expanded, with more patients analyzed by whole-gene sequencing. Although a quick screening method is feasible for the Greek population, whole-gene sequencing is essential to identify rare variants. Children with border line lipid levels and a family history of hypercholesterolemia should be considered for molecular diagnosis, since carriers of certain mutations show milder phenotypes and may be missed during clinical diagnosis.

Novel LDLR variants in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia: in silico analysis as a tool to predict pathogenic variants in children and their families.

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an autosomal dominant disease with a frequency of 1:500 in its heterozygous form. To date, mutations in the low-density lipoprotein receptor gene (LDLR) are the only identified causes of FH in the Greek population, causing high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total cholesterol and premature atherosclerosis. The Greek FH population is genetically homogeneous, but most previous studies screened for the most common mutations only. The study aimed to characterize and assess novel LDLR variants. LDLR was examined by whole-gene DNA sequencing in 561 FH patients from 262 families of Greek origin. Novel LDLR variants were analyzed in silico using various software predicting pathogenicity and changes in protein stability. Twelve novel LDLR variants were identified, six of which are putative disease-causing variants: c.977C>G in exon 7, c.1124A>C in exon 8, c.1381G>T in exon 10, c.628_643dup{636del}, c.661-673dup in exon 4, and 13 c.1987+1_+33del in intron 13. All six putative variants were confirmed in the hypercholesterolemic members of the family. The results show that in silico analysis is a valuable tool to predict potential pathogenicity of novel variants, especially for populations that have not been extensively studied. The identification of novel pathogenic variants will facilitate the molecular diagnosis of FH from early childhood.