Use of sentinel chickens to study the transmission dynamics of West Nile virus in a sahelian ecosystem.

During the 2003 rainy season, a follow-up survey in sentinel chickens was undertaken to assess the seasonal transmission of West Nile virus (WNV) in a sahelian ecosystem: the Ferlo (Senegal). The estimated incidence rate in chickens was 14% (95% CI 7-29), with a very low level of transmission between July and September, and a transmission peak occurring between September and October. Comparing these results with the estimate obtained from a previous transversal serological study performed on horses the same year in the same area, the relevance of sentinel chickens in estimating the WNV transmission rate is highlighted. Conventionally adult mosquito populations disappear during the dry season but WN disease was shown to be endemic in the study area. The mechanisms of virus maintenance are discussed.

Rainfall triggered dynamics of Aedes mosquito aggressiveness.

Inspired by Davidson method of estimating daily survivals of a structureless population of mosquitoes, we present a model which describes the behavior of floodwater mosquitoes in terms of emergence functions following a rainfall event, blood feeding frequency and parous stages, and survival at various stages. As a generalization of the Davidson formula, we have developed an approach for dealing with the dynamics of structured population of mosquitoes, and derived various formulas allowing assessment of demographic parameters like durations of gonotrophic cycles and (apparent) daily survivals. The method was subsequently applied to field data of floodwater mosquitoes Aedes vexans arabiensis, potential vectors of Rift Valley fever in West Africa, collected during the 2003 rainy season in Barkedji, Senegal. We found that mosquitoes emerged about 3 to 4 days following an efficient rainfall, and mosquito emergences, described by a bell shaped function, lasted for about 2 days. The mean duration of the gonotrophic cycle was 3 days and the apparent daily survival about 0.87.

Early determination of the reproductive number for vector-borne diseases: the case of dengue in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a new method of deriving the reproductive number for vector-borne diseases from the early epidemic curves for vector-borne diseases with incubations in the vectors and in the hosts. METHOD: We applied the model to several dengue epidemics in different climatic regions of Brazil: Brasilia, Belém, Fortaleza, Boa Vista. RESULTS: The new method leads to higher estimates of the reproductive number than previous models. CONCLUSION: At present, Aedes aegypti densities, the meeting of more compatible strains of viruses and mosquitoes, may lead to re-emergence of urban yellow fever epidemics.

Exposure of sheep to mosquito bites: possible consequences for the transmission risk of Rift Valley Fever in Senegal.

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a growing health problem in West Africa. In northern Senegal, the candidate vectors of this arbovirosis are Aedes (Aedimorphus) vexans Meigen and Culex (Culex) poicilipes Theobald (Diptera: Culicidae). Domestic ruminants are the reservoirs of the virus. A study was undertaken during the 2002 rainy season to assess spatial and temporal variations in exposure to mosquito bites in sheep herds, and to evaluate the possible consequences on the risk of RVF transmission to sheep. Mosquitoes were collected with sheep-baited traps. The number of Ae. vexans females (the predominant species during the 2002 rainy season) trapped per trap-night was the dependent variable in statistical analyses. The trapping periods were divided into six series of two to five consecutive days, from July to November 2002. Three temporary ponds were selected according to their ecological features: depth, bank slope, size and vegetation cover. Traps were laid on the pond bank and in the nearest available compound, close to the sheep night pen. Data were analysed using mixed-effects Poisson models. The explanatory variables were the trapping period, the pond, and the capture site. The exposure to mosquito bites varied according to the pond type, suggesting that the risk of transmission was spatially heterogeneous. However, there was no obvious trend in transmission risk due to the effect of the distance from the compound to the pond. The period with the highest exposure was in October, i.e. when transhumant herds left the Ferlo to relocate to their dry-season settlement. It is thus hypothesized that transhumance, the seasonal movements of herds, plays a significant role in the dissemination of RVF virus in the region.

Isolation of yellow fever virus from nulliparous Haemagogus (Haemagogus) janthinomys in eastern Amazonia.

In 1998, an epizootic of yellow fever (YF) killed many howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) in eastern Amazonia near the city of Altamira. An infection level with YF virus of approximately 3.6% was determined from analysis of 456 females of Haemagogus janthinomys Dyar, the main enzootic YF vector in South America. One month later, a second study of 164 females captured in the same place led to infection levels of 0.8% for parous and 2.9% for nulliparous females. These results lead to the conclusion that vertical transmission, one of the key elements in the epidemiology of YF, occurs in South America as it does in Africa.

[Yellow fever epidemiology in Brazil]. / Considérations sur l'épidémiologie de la fièvre jaune au Brésil.

We have carried out a meticulous time-space-analysis of the incidence of yellow fever in humans in Brazil from 1954 to 1972 and especially from 1973 to 1999. This study has added to our knowledge of the epidemiology of yellow fever and enabled us to redefine epidemiological zones and determine their geographical limits. The endemic area is located within the Amazon basin; here cases are scattered and generally limited in number. However, there are also "foci of endemic emergence" within this area, where cases are less rare, although occurrence remains irregular. The epidemic area is for the most part situated outside the Amazon basin, to the north east and particularly to the south. It has been divided into two parts according to whether the occurrence of yellow fever is cyclic or sporadic. The epidemics, which are all sylvatic, follow either a circular path (in the forest area) or a linear path (in forest-galleries of the savannah area). The study of the development of the 3 main epidemics (1972-74; 1979-82; 1986-92) in the cyclic emergence area showed that, on each occasion, the yellow fever virus appeared at a particularly active outbreak site located in the "serra dos Carajás", and from there, it followed the courses of the Tocantins and Araguaia rivers upstream, moving southwards during the "pre-epidemic phase" which may be visible due to the occurrence of a few cases, or may remain invisible. Subsequently the virus reached the emergence area, where it appeared in the form of epidemics. In this zone, it also followed privileged south-western pathways, moving from one hydraulic basin to another along the upstream courses of the rivers. Almost exactly the same pathways have been identified for each of the 3 epidemics studied. The distances travelled by the virus over a period of one year--when it goes rapidly--can reach several hundred kilometers. On the other hand, it may be stationary for a period of one or two consecutive years, occasionally three, remaining present in the area but infecting humans only rarely if at all. The virus occasionally leaves the cyclic emergence area and appears in the sporadic emergence area to the east, in the states of Bahia, Minas Gerais and São Paulo, and, as a consequence, moving onto other hydraulic basins. The small river basins in Maranhão and NorthWest states, as well as in the northern part of the state of Roraima also form part of the sporadic emergence area. The epidemics that occur here are directly linked to the endemic area and are only preceded by sometimes indiscernible epizootics and can consequently not be foreseen. Again the virus appears to use privileged pathways to reach the sporadic emergence areas where human and monkey populations are generally only partially immunised against yellow fever and where contact with mosquitoes is intense despite the fact it is limited in space and time, being restricted to the often narrow strip of trees along the water courses. Other routes used by the virus may be the Madeira, Xingu and Tapajós rivers, the scene of outbreaks observed in the state of Rondônia and in the north of Mato Grosso, where ongoing environmental changes are likely to result in an increasing number of outbreaks in the coming years. Since the discovery of the sylvatic cycle of yellow fever in 1933, not only the extent of the epidemiological areas has changed, but also their limits. Ecological modifications that are currently taking place in the Amazon basin, which is an endemic reservoir of the virus, will inevitably facilitate an increase the contact between humans and vectors. While more and more urban areas harbour populations of Aedes aegypti, the domestic and urban vector of yellow fever, it is particularly important to try to protect human populations living in emergence zones and epidemic areas and thus to prevent the arrival of the virus in towns via humans with viremia--in other words the much feared urbanisation of yellow fever in Brazil.

Dengue epidemic in Belém, Pará, Brazil, 1996-97.

We describe clinical and epidemiologic findings during the first epidemic of dengue fever in Belém, Pará State, Brazil, in 1996-97. Of 40,237 serum samples, 17,440 (43%) were positive for dengue by virus isolation or serologic testing. No hemorrhagic cases or deaths were reported. Mycobacterium tuberculosis

An epidemic of sylvatic yellow fever in the southeast region of Maranhao State, Brazil, 1993-1994: epidemiologic and entomologic findings.

Yellow fever virus transmission was very active in Maranhao State in Brazil in 1993 and 1994. An investigation was carried out to evaluate the magnitude of the epidemic. In 1993, a total of 932 people was examined for yellow fever from Maranhao: 70 were positive serologically, histopathologically, and/or by virus isolation, and another four cases were diagnosed clinically and epidemiologically. In Mirador (17,565 inhabitants), the incidence was 3.5 per 1,000 people (case fatality rate [number of deaths/number of cases diagnosed] = 16.4%), while in a rural yellow fever risk area (14,659 inhabitants), the incidence was 4.2 and the case-fatality rate was 16.1% (10 of 62). A total of 45.2% (28 of 62) asymptomatic infections were registered. In 1994, 49 serum samples were obtained and 16 cases were confirmed (two by virus isolation, two by seroconversion, and 12 by serology). No fatal cases were reported. In 1993, 936 potential yellow fever vectors were captured in Mirador and a single strain was isolated from a pool of Haemagogus janthinomys (infection rate = 0.16%). In 1994, 16 strains were isolated from 1,318 Hg. janthinomys (infection rate = 1.34%) and one Sabethes chloropterus (infection rate = 1.67%). Our results suggest that this was the most extensive outbreak of yellow fever in the last 20 years in Brazil. It is also clear that the lack of vaccination was the principal reason for the epidemic, which occurred between April and June, during the rainy season, a period in which the mosquito population in the forest increases.

[Conditions for the laboratory survival of Haemagogus janthinomys dyar, 1921 (Diptera:Culicidae)]. / Condições de sobrevivência em laboratório de Haemagogus janthinomys dyar, 1921 (Diptera: Culicidae).

A little modification was made on the classical Borel tube, used for rearing isolated females of mosquitoes. The first studies were realized with the main Yellow fever vector, Haemagogus janthinomys, in Brazil. The results are: a better survival, as far as 72 days, a greater number of eggs, up to 80, and a shorter trophogonic cycle of 7-8 days. So, one can imagine more easily further studies about the vertical transmission of the YF virus by this important neo-tropical mosquito.

[The risk of urban yellow fever outbreaks in Brazil by dengue vectors. Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus]. / Les risques d'épidémisation urbaine de la fièvre jaune au Brésil par les vecteurs de la dengue. Aedes aegypti et Aedes albopictus.

Urban yellow fever (YF) epidemics have disappeared from Brazil since about 50 years, but a selvatic cycle still exist. In many States, cases are more or less numerous each year. Ae. aegypti was eradicated in 1954, re-appeared temporarily in 1967, and then definitively in 1976-1977. Ae. aegypti is a vector of yellow few (YF), but also of dengue, whose first cases were reported in 1982. Today, dengue is endemic in many regions. A second Flavivirus vector, Aedes albopictus is present since about ten years in some States, from which Säo Paulo. The analysis of the YF cases between 1972 and 1994 allowed us to determine the epidemiologic regions. In the first region, the endemic area, the YF virus is circulating "silently" among monkeys, and the emergence of human cases is rare. In the second region, the epidemic area, some epizootics occur in a more or less cyclic way, and human cases can be numerous. Nevertheless, these outbreaks are considered "selvatic" epidemics, as long as Ae. aegypti is not concerned. From the Amazonian region, the virus moves forward along the forest galleries of the Amazone tributaries, from North to South. Actually, dengue epidemics appear in quite all States, and reflect the geographical distribution of Ae. aegypti. Recently, Ae. aegypti was found in the southern part of the Pará State, in the Carajás region considered to be the source of the main YF epidemics. In another hand, Ae. albopictus is now increasing its distribution area, specially in the suburban zones. The ecology of this potential vector, which seems to have a great adaptative capacity, give this vector an intermediate position between the forest galleries, where the YF virus circulates, and the agglomerations infested with Ae. aegypti. Since a few years, the possibility of urban YF is threatening Brazil, it is more and more predictable and we must survey very carefully the epidemiological situation in some regions of the country.

[Epidemiology of arbovirus diseases: use and value of physiologic age determination of female mosquito vectors]. / Epidémiologie des arboviroses: utilisation et intérêt de la détermination de l'âge physiologique des femelles de moustiques vecteurs.

The physiological age of Yellow Fever Aedes females in Africa was studied during four years, from 1988 to 1992. We used a method, according to Polovodova's method, which looks for the "yellow body" under natural light. Those yellow bodies exist in the old females, the "parous" ones, and not in the young females, the "nulliparous" ones. We present some results to illustrate the interest of studying the physiological age of mosquitoes in the epidemiology of the arboviral diseases. The transmission risk, in relation with abundance and parity rate was illustrated, in particular for Aedes africanus and Aedes luteocephalus, which is useful to compare species, or with a given species, to compare periods. The parity rate of Aedes furcifer females was studied on 6 points along a transect between a forest and a village. The rate and the abundance of the females caught on human bates are inversely proportional. The parity rate is minimum in the canopy forest (about 50%) and maximum inside a house (100%). The rains have different consequences on the species, according to the period of fall. At the beginning of the dry season, they bring about hatching, but not at the end of the dry season. Massive hatching, will occur just at the beginning of the rainy season, some weeks later. Studying the physiological age of Ae. africanus females, the number of nulliparous is not related to the rain. That means a possibility of "natural" hatching for part of the eggs. Among the female of the dry season, young females are found, which is important for the transmission capacity. The method, described herein, to determine the physiological age is perfectly applicable to the Yellow Fever vector Haemagogus janthinomys in Southern America. But for the Dengue vectors Aedes aegypti and probably Aedes albopictus, the Detinova's method seems better. Actually, it seems important to study the physiological age of the vectors Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, as well as the evolution of the physiological age in space and time, in order to better know the epidemiology of dengue in Southern America.