Characterization of Biomarkers of Thrombo-Inflammation in Patients with First-Diagnosed Atrial Fibrillation.

Patients with first-diagnosed atrial fibrillation (FDAF) exhibit major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) during follow-up. Preclinical models have demonstrated that thrombo-inflammation mediates adverse cardiac remodeling and atherothrombotic events. We have hypothesized that thrombin activity (FIIa) links coagulation with inflammation and cardiac fibrosis/dysfunction. Surrogate markers of the thrombo-inflammatory response in plasma have not been characterized in FDAF. In this prospective longitudinal study, patients presenting with FDAF (n = 80), and 20 matched controls, were included. FIIa generation and activity in plasma were increased in the patients with early AF compared to the patients with chronic cardiovascular disease without AF (controls; p < 0.0001). This increase was accompanied by elevated biomarkers (ELISA) of platelet and endothelial activation in plasma. Pro-inflammatory peripheral immune cells (TNF-α+ or IL-6+) that expressed FIIa-activated protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) (flow cytometry) circulated more frequently in patients with FDAF compared to the controls (p < 0.0001). FIIa activity correlated with cardiac fibrosis (collagen turnover) and cardiac dysfunction (NT-pro ANP/NT-pro BNP) surrogate markers. FIIa activity in plasma was higher in patients with FDAF who experienced MACE. Signaling via FIIa might be a presumed link between the coagulation system (tissue factor-FXa/FIIa-PAR1 axis), inflammation, and pro-fibrotic pathways (thrombo-inflammation) in FDAF.

A Colonic Organoid Model Challenged with the Large Toxins of Clostridioides difficile TcdA and TcdB Exhibit Deregulated Tight Junction Proteins.

BACKGROUND: Clostridioides difficile toxins TcdA and TcdB are responsible for diarrhea and colitis. Lack of functional studies in organoid models of the gut prompted us to elucidate the toxin's effects on epithelial barrier function and the molecular mechanisms for diarrhea and inflammation. METHODS: Human adult colon organoids were cultured on membrane inserts. Tight junction (TJ) proteins and actin cytoskeleton were analyzed for expression via Western blotting and via confocal laser-scanning microscopy for subcellular localization. RESULTS: Polarized intestinal organoid monolayers were established from stem cell-containing colon organoids to apply toxins from the apical side and to perform functional measurements in the organoid model. The toxins caused a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance in human colonic organoid monolayers with sublethal concentrations. Concomitantly, we detected increased paracellular permeability fluorescein and FITC-dextran-4000. Human colonic organoid monolayers exposed to the toxins exhibited redistribution of barrier-forming TJ proteins claudin-1, -4 and tricellulin, whereas channel-forming claudin-2 expression was increased. Perijunctional F-actin cytoskeleton organization was affected. CONCLUSIONS: Adult stem cell-derived human colonic organoid monolayers were applicable as a colon infection model for electrophysiological measurements. The TJ changes noted can explain the epithelial barrier dysfunction and diarrhea in patients, as well as increased entry of luminal antigens triggering inflammation.

Cytolytic CD8+ T cell response to SARS-CoV-2 and non-SARS-CoV-2-related viruses is associated with severe manifestation of COVID-19.

Little is known about the CD8+ T cell functionality in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, we examined twenty-five hospitalized COVID-19 patients with moderate (MD) or severe disease (SD) as well as seventeen SARS-CoV-2-unexposed persons regarding the cytolytic and cytokine-producing reactivity of their CD8+ T cells. Reactive CD8+ T cells were detectable in 90% of the unexposed persons, confirming high cross-reactive immune memory in the general population. Compared to unexposed persons and MD patients, SD patients had higher numbers of SARS-CoV-2 reactive CD8+ T cells with cytolytic function that can simultaneously produce inflammatory cytokines. In addition, SD patients showed higher CD8+ T cell reactivity against non-SARS-CoV-2-related viruses, which was mainly mediated by cytolytic response. Sequence alignments showed that cross-reactivities with the Spike protein could contribute to the expansion of such cells. Since insufficiently regulated cytolytic CD8+ T cells can damage peripheral and vascular tissue structures, high levels of both SARS-CoV-2-reactive and heterologously activated cytolytic CD8+ T cells could favor severe disease progression.

Uptake of Tropheryma whipplei by Intestinal Epithelia.

BACKGROUND: Tropheryma whipplei (TW) can cause different pathologies, e.g., Whipple's disease and transient gastroenteritis. The mechanism by which the bacteria pass the intestinal epithelial barrier, and the mechanism of TW-induced gastroenteritis are currently unknown. METHODS: Using ex vivo disease models comprising human duodenal mucosa exposed to TW in Ussing chambers, various intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) cultures exposed to TW and a macrophage/IEC coculture model served to characterize endocytic uptake mechanisms and barrier function. RESULTS: TW exposed ex vivo to human small intestinal mucosae is capable of autonomously entering IECs, thereby invading the mucosa. Using dominant-negative mutants, TW uptake was shown to be dynamin- and caveolin-dependent but independent of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Complementary inhibitor experiments suggested a role for the activation of the Ras/Rac1 pathway and actin polymerization. TW-invaded IECs underwent apoptosis, thereby causing an epithelial barrier defect, and were subsequently subject to phagocytosis by macrophages. CONCLUSIONS: TW enters epithelia via an actin-, dynamin-, caveolin-, and Ras-Rac1-dependent endocytosis mechanism and consecutively causes IEC apoptosis primarily in IECs invaded by multiple TW bacteria. This results in a barrier leak. Moreover, we propose that TW-packed IECs can be subject to phagocytic uptake by macrophages, thereby opening a potential entry point of TW into intestinal macrophages.

Intestinal Barrier in Post-Campylobacter jejuni Irritable Bowel Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) is one of the most common causes of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. One sequela of this infection is the development of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (PI-IBS). It has been suggested that a dysfunctional intestinal barrier may promote IBS development. We aimed to test this hypothesis against the background of the leaky gut concept for low-grade inflammation in PI-IBS. METHODS: We identified patients with persistent PI-IBS symptoms after C. jejuni infection. During sigmoidoscopy, forceps biopsies were obtained for electrophysiological measurements of epithelial transport and barrier function in miniaturized Ussing devices. C. jejuni absence was checked by PCR and cytokine production with immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: In PI-IBS, the epithelial resistance of the colon epithelium was unaltered, reflecting an intact paracellular pathway. In contrast, temperature-dependent horseradish peroxidase (HRP, 44 kDa) permeation increased. Short-circuit current (Isc) reflecting active anion secretion and ENaC-dependent electrogenic sodium absorption was unaffected. Early endosome antigen-1 (EEA1) and IL-4 levels increased. C. jejuni is not incorporated into the resident microbiota of the colon mucosa in PI-IBS. CONCLUSIONS: In PI-IBS after C. jejuni infection, macromolecule uptake via endocytosis was enhanced, leading to low-grade inflammation with pro-inflammatory cytokine release. The findings will allow C. jejuni-induced pathomechanisms to be targeted during infection and, thereafter to reduce sequelae such as PI-IBS.

Development of a Cellular Model Mimicking Specific HDAC Inhibitors.

Class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) are important regulators of cellular functions in health and disease. HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, and HDAC8 are promising targets for the treatment of cancer, neurological, and immunological disorders. These enzymes have both catalytic and non-catalytic functions in the regulation of gene expression. We here describe the generation of a genetic toolbox by the CRISPR/Cas9 methodology in nearly haploid human tumor cells. This novel model system allows to discriminate between catalytic and structural functions of class I HDAC enzymes and to mimic the treatment with specific HDAC inhibitors.

The spectrum of central nervous system involvement in Whipple's disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: To assess the clinical spectrum of central nervous system (CNS) involvement as well as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and neuroimaging findings in patients with Whipple's disease (WD) and to analyze the association of neurological symptoms with CSF and imaging findings. METHODS: Neurological involvement was retrospectively analyzed in a series of 36 patients diagnosed with WD at a single center between 1992 and 2019. Findings of 81 comprehensive CSF examinations from 36 patients, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for Tropheryma whipplei (TW) in CSF from 35 patients, were systematically evaluated. The prevalence of ischemic stroke in patients with WD was compared to a matched control cohort. RESULTS: Neurological symptoms occurred in 23 of 36 (63.9%) patients, with cognitive, motor, and oculomotor dysfunction being most frequent. TW was detected by PCR in CSF of 13 of 22 (59.1%) patients with and four of 13 (30.8%, p = 0.0496) patients without neurological symptoms. Total CSF protein (p = 0.044) and lactate (p = 0.035) were moderately elevated in WD with neurologic symptoms compared with WD without. No intrathecal immunoglobulin synthesis was observed. Three of 36 (8.3%) patients had hydrocephalus due to aqueductal stenosis. Patients with WD had an unexpectedly high prevalence of ischemic stroke (10/36, 27.7%) compared to matched controls (10/360, 3.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Neurological involvement in patients with WD is common. Detection of TW DNA in CSF is only partly associated with neurological symptoms. Elevated CSF parameters suggest CNS parenchymal infection. Stroke is a hitherto underrecognized manifestation of WD. These findings suggest that mechanisms beyond CNS infection contribute to the spectrum of CNS involvement in WD.

A toolbox for class I HDACs reveals isoform specific roles in gene regulation and protein acetylation.

The class I histone deacetylases are essential regulators of cell fate decisions in health and disease. While pan- and class-specific HDAC inhibitors are available, these drugs do not allow a comprehensive understanding of individual HDAC function, or the therapeutic potential of isoform-specific targeting. To systematically compare the impact of individual catalytic functions of HDAC1, HDAC2 and HDAC3, we generated human HAP1 cell lines expressing catalytically inactive HDAC enzymes. Using this genetic toolbox we compare the effect of individual HDAC inhibition with the effects of class I specific inhibitors on cell viability, protein acetylation and gene expression. Individual inactivation of HDAC1 or HDAC2 has only mild effects on cell viability, while HDAC3 inactivation or loss results in DNA damage and apoptosis. Inactivation of HDAC1/HDAC2 led to increased acetylation of components of the COREST co-repressor complex, reduced deacetylase activity associated with this complex and derepression of neuronal genes. HDAC3 controls the acetylation of nuclear hormone receptor associated proteins and the expression of nuclear hormone receptor regulated genes. Acetylation of specific histone acetyltransferases and HDACs is sensitive to inactivation of HDAC1/HDAC2. Over a wide range of assays, we determined that in particular HDAC1 or HDAC2 catalytic inactivation mimics class I specific HDAC inhibitors. Importantly, we further demonstrate that catalytic inactivation of HDAC1 or HDAC2 sensitizes cells to specific cancer drugs. In summary, our systematic study revealed isoform-specific roles of HDAC1/2/3 catalytic functions. We suggest that targeted genetic inactivation of particular isoforms effectively mimics pharmacological HDAC inhibition allowing the identification of relevant HDACs as targets for therapeutic intervention.

The combination of clinical parameters and immunophenotyping of intraepithelial lymphocytes allows to assess disease severity in refractory celiac disease.

BACKGROUND: Flow cytometry of intestinal lymphocytes is discussed to be a stronger predictor of enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma development in refractory celiac disease than T-cell clonality analysis. AIMS: To investigate possible associations between clinical characteristics of refractory celiac disease patients and aberrant intraepithelial lymphocytes and to evaluate the accuracy of immunophenotyping for the identification of high-risk refractory celiac disease. METHODS: Flow cytometry of isolated lymphocytes from duodenal biopsies of controls and celiac disease patients was performed and results were compared to clinical data. RESULTS: Flow cytometry analysis was performed on 42 controls, 37 non-complicated celiac disease and 30 refractory celiac disease cases with or without T-cell receptor clonality. Elevated aberrant intraepithelial lymphocyte counts were significantly associated with severe malabsorption. A 15% cut-off (aberrant lymphocytes among all lymphocytes) had the best discriminatory ability to identify high-risk patients. However, this technique failed to identify some high-risk cases (sensitivity 63%, specificity 100%). The severity of malabsorption was added to the criteria for high-risk refractory celiac disease, improving the correct patients' allocation (sensitivity 100%, specificity 96%). CONCLUSION: Immunophenotyping of aberrant intraepithelial lymphocytes is a good predictor for high-risk refractory celiac disease. Furthermore, adding the evaluation of malabsorption to the diagnostic assessment of refractory celiac disease optimizes accuracy.

Intestinal barrier dysfunction mediates Whipple's disease immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS).

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Classical Whipple's disease (CWD) affects the gastrointestinal tract and causes chronic diarrhea, malabsorption, and barrier dysfunction with microbial translocation (MT). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is a serious complication during antimicrobial treatment of CWD. The pathomechanisms of IRIS have not been identified and mucosal barrier integrity has not been studied in patients with IRIS CWD. METHODS: In 96 CWD patients (n = 23 IRIS, n = 73 non-IRIS) and 30 control subjects, we analysed duodenal morphology by histology, measured serum markers of MT, and proinflammatory cytokines in biopsy supernatants, and correlated microbial translocation with T cell reconstitution and activation. RESULTS: Before treatment, duodenal specimens from patients who later developed IRIS exhibited a more pronounced morphological transformation that suggested a disturbed barrier integrity when compared with the non-IRIS group. Villous atrophy was mediated by increased apoptosis of epithelial cells, which was insufficiently counterbalanced by regenerative proliferation of crypt cells. Pretreatment deficiencies in the mucosal secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines (e.g., IL-6, CCL2) in these patients markedly resolved after therapy induction. High serum levels of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), soluble CD14 (sCD14), and LPS-binding protein (LBP) combined with low endotoxin core antibody (EndoCAb) titres suggested systemic MT in CWD patients developing IRIS. CD4+ T cell count and activation in IRIS CWD patients correlated positively with sCD14 levels and negatively with EndoCAb titres. Furthermore, the degree of intestinal barrier dysfunction and MT was predictive for the onset of IRIS. CONCLUSION: Prolonged MT across a dysfunctional intestinal mucosal barrier due to severe tissue damage favors dysbalanced immune reconstitution and systemic immune activation in IRIS CWD. Therefore, the monitoring of inflammatory and MT markers in CWD patients might be helpful in identifying patients who are at risk of developing IRIS. Therapeutic strategies to reconstitute the mucosal barrier and control inflammation could assist in the prevention of IRIS.

Cytotoxic CD8+ T Cells Are Involved in the Thrombo-Inflammatory Response during First-Diagnosed Atrial Fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Atrial myopathy and atrial fibrillation (AF) accompany thrombo-inflammation. This facilitates disease progression and promotes major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs). Thrombin receptor (protease-activated receptor 1, PAR1) signalling is central in mediating thrombo-inflammation. We hypothesised that PAR1 signalling links coagulation and inflammation through cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes in patients presenting with first-diagnosed AF (FDAF). METHODS: A total of 210 patients were studied. We included data and blood samples from patients presenting with FDAF (n = 160), cardiac tissue from patients with paroxysmal AF (n = 32) and 20 controls. RESULTS: During early AF, a pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic subset of T lymphocytes (CD8+) circulated more frequently when compared to patients with chronic cardiovascular disease but without AF, accompanied by elevated plasma levels of CD8+ effector molecules, which corresponded to biomarkers of adverse cardiac remodelling and atrial dysfunction. Activation of tissue factor (TF) and PAR1 was associated with pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic effector functions. PAR1-related CD8+ cell activation was more frequent in FDAF patients that experienced a MACE. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with FDAF, the TF-factor Xa-factor IIa-axis contributes to thrombo-inflammation via PAR1 in CD8+ T cells. Intervening in this cascade might be a promising synergistic approach to reducing disease progression and the vascular complications of AF.

Pleiotropic Effects of the Protease-Activated Receptor 1 (PAR1) Inhibitor, Vorapaxar, on Atherosclerosis and Vascular Inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) and toll-like receptors (TLRs) are inflammatory mediators contributing to atherogenesis and atherothrombosis. Vorapaxar, which selectively antagonizes PAR1-signaling, is an approved, add-on antiplatelet therapy for secondary prevention. The non-hemostatic, platelet-independent, pleiotropic effects of vorapaxar have not yet been studied. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cellular targets of PAR1 signaling in the vasculature were identified in three patient cohorts with atherosclerotic disease. Evaluation of plasma biomarkers (n = 190) and gene expression in endomyocardial biopsies (EMBs) (n = 12) revealed that PAR1 expression correlated with endothelial activation and vascular inflammation. PAR1 colocalized with TLR2/4 in human carotid plaques and was associated with TLR2/4 gene transcription in EMBs. In addition, vorapaxar reduced atherosclerotic lesion size in apolipoprotein E-knock out (ApoEko) mice. This reduction was associated with reduced expression of vascular adhesion molecules and TLR2/4 presence, both in isolated murine endothelial cells and the aorta. Thrombin-induced uptake of oxLDL was augmented by additional TLR2/4 stimulation and abrogated by vorapaxar. Plaque-infiltrating pro-inflammatory cells were reduced in vorapaxar-treated ApoEko mice. A shift toward M2 macrophages paralleled a decreased transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. CONCLUSIONS: PAR1 inhibition with vorapaxar may be effective in reducing residual thrombo-inflammatory event risk in patients with atherosclerosis independent of its effect on platelets.

Untimely TGFß responses in COVID-19 limit antiviral functions of NK cells.

SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes COVID-19. Given its acute and often self-limiting course, it is likely that components of the innate immune system play a central part in controlling virus replication and determining clinical outcome. Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes with notable activity against a broad range of viruses, including RNA viruses1,2. NK cell function may be altered during COVID-19 despite increased representation of NK cells with an activated and adaptive phenotype3,4. Here we show that a decline in viral load in COVID-19 correlates with NK cell status and that NK cells can control SARS-CoV-2 replication by recognizing infected target cells. In severe COVID-19, NK cells show defects in virus control, cytokine production and cell-mediated cytotoxicity despite high expression of cytotoxic effector molecules. Single-cell RNA sequencing of NK cells over the time course of the COVID-19 disease spectrum reveals a distinct gene expression signature. Transcriptional networks of interferon-driven NK cell activation are superimposed by a dominant transforming growth factor-ß (TGFß) response signature, with reduced expression of genes related to cell-cell adhesion, granule exocytosis and cell-mediated cytotoxicity. In severe COVID-19, serum levels of TGFß peak during the first two weeks of infection, and serum obtained from these patients severely inhibits NK cell function in a TGFß-dependent manner. Our data reveal that an untimely production of TGFß is a hallmark of severe COVID-19 and may inhibit NK cell function and early control of the virus.

Human small intestinal infection by SARS-CoV-2 is characterized by a mucosal infiltration with activated CD8+ T cells.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has so far claimed over three and a half million lives worldwide. Though the SARS-CoV-2 mediated disease COVID-19 has first been characterized by an infection of the upper airways and the lung, recent evidence suggests a complex disease including gastrointestinal symptoms. Even if a direct viral tropism of intestinal cells has recently been demonstrated, it remains unclear, whether gastrointestinal symptoms are caused by direct infection of the gastrointestinal tract by SARS-CoV-2 or whether they are a consequence of a systemic immune activation and subsequent modulation of the mucosal immune system. To better understand the cause of intestinal symptoms we analyzed biopsies of the small intestine from SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals. Applying qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, we detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA and nucleocapsid protein in duodenal mucosa. In addition, applying imaging mass cytometry and immunohistochemistry, we identified histomorphological changes of the epithelium, which were characterized by an accumulation of activated intraepithelial CD8+ T cells as well as epithelial apoptosis and subsequent regenerative proliferation in the small intestine of COVID-19 patients. In summary, our findings indicate that intraepithelial CD8+ T cells are activated upon infection of intestinal epithelial cells with SARS-CoV-2, providing one possible explanation for gastrointestinal symptoms associated with COVID-19.

Differential diagnostic value of rheumatic symptoms in patients with Whipple's disease.

Most patients with Whipple's disease have rheumatic symptoms. The aim of our prospective, questionnaire-based, non-interventional clinical study was to assess whether these symptoms are useful in guiding the differential diagnosis to the rheumatic disorders. Forty patients with Whipple's disease, followed by 20 patients for validation and 30 patients with rheumatoid-, 21 with psoriatic-, 15 with palindromic- and 25 with axial spondyloarthritis were recruited for the present investigation. Patients with Whipple's disease and patients with rheumatic disorders were asked to record rheumatic symptoms on pseudonymized questionnaires. The data obtained were subjected to multiple logistic regression analysis. Episodic pain with rapid onset, springing from joint to joint was most common in patients with palindromic arthritis and second most common and somewhat less conspicuous in Whipple's disease. Continuous pain in the same joints predominated in patients with rheumatoid-, psoriatic-, and axial spondyloarthritis. Multiple logistic equations resulted in a predicted probability for the diagnosis of Whipple's disease of 43.4 ± 0.19% (M ± SD) versus a significantly lower probability of 23.8 ± 0.19% (M ± SD) in the aggregate of patients with rheumatic disorders. Mean area under the curve (AUC) ± SD was 0.781 ± 0.044, 95% CI 0.695-0.867, asymptotic significance p < 0.001. The logistic equations predicted probability for the diagnosis of Whipple's disease in the initial series of 40 patients of 43.4 ± 0.19% was not significantly different in the subsequent 20 patients of 38.2 ± 0.28% (M ± SD) (p = 0.376). The data may be useful in a predictive algorithm for diagnosing Whipple's disease. The project is registered as clinical study DRK S0001566.

Tropheryma whipplei in Feces of Patients with Diarrhea in 3 Locations on Different Continents.

We examined fecal specimens of patients with diarrhea from 3 continents for Tropheryma whipplei and enteropathogens. T. whipplei was most common in South Africa, followed by Singapore and Germany. Its presence was associated with the presence of other pathogens. An independent causative role in diarrhea appears unlikely.

Source attribution of community-acquired cases of Legionnaires' disease-results from the German LeTriWa study; Berlin, 2016-2019.

INTRODUCTION: Sources of infection of most cases of community-acquired Legionnaires' disease (CALD) are unknown. OBJECTIVE: Identification of sources of infection of CALD. SETTING: Berlin; December 2016-May 2019. PARTICIPANTS: Adult cases of CALD reported to district health authorities and consenting to the study; age and hospital matched controls. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Percentage of cases of CALD with attributed source of infection. METHODS: Analysis of secondary patient samples for monoclonal antibody (MAb) type (and sequence type); questionnaire-based interviews, analysis of standard household water samples for Legionella concentration followed by MAb (and sequence) typing of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lp1) isolates; among cases taking of additional water samples to identify the infectious source as appropriate; recruitment of control persons for comparison of exposure history and Legionella in standard household water samples. For each case an appraisal matrix was filled in to attribute any of three source types (external (non-residence) source, residential non-drinking water (RnDW) source (not directly from drinking water outlet), residential drinking water (RDW) as source) using three evidence types (microbiological results, cluster evidence, analytical-comparative evidence (using added information from controls)). RESULTS: Inclusion of 111 study cases and 202 controls. Median age of cases was 67 years (range 25-93 years), 74 (67%) were male. Among 65 patients with urine typable for MAb type we found a MAb 3/1-positive strain in all of them. Compared to controls being a case was not associated with a higher Legionella concentration in standard household water samples, however, the presence of a MAb 3/1-positive strain was significantly associated (odds ratio (OR) = 4.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 to 11). Thus, a source was attributed by microbiological evidence if it contained a MAb 3/1-positive strain. A source was attributed by cluster evidence if at least two cases were exposed to the same source. Statistically significant general source types were attributed by calculating the population attributable risk (analytical-comparative evidence). We identified an external source in 16 (14%) cases, and RDW as source in 28 (25%). Wearing inadequately disinfected dentures was the only RnDW source significantly associated with cases (OR = 3.2, 95% CI 1.3 to 7.8) and led to an additional 8% of cases with source attribution, for a total of 48% of cases attributed. CONCLUSION: Using the appraisal matrix we attributed almost half of all cases of CALD to an infectious source, predominantly RDW. Risk for LD seems to be conferred primarily by the type of Legionella rather than the amount. Dentures as a new infectious source needs further, in particular, integrated microbiological, molecular and epidemiological confirmation.