Prevalence of comorbidity of autism and ADHD and associated characteristics in school population: EPINED study.

Autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) comorbidity in the school population have been understudied. This study estimates its prevalence considering both parents' and teachers' reports and clinical diagnosis. Sociodemographic, clinical, and cognitive data were compared by diagnostic groups: autism, ADHD, autism and ADHD, subthreshold autism spectrum disorder (ASD), subthreshold ADHD, and children without neurodevelopmental conditions. Following a two-phase design, 3727 parents and teachers (1802 preschoolers, 1925 school-age children) participated in the first phase. Subsequently, 781 participants underwent individual assessment for DSM-5 diagnoses. The estimated prevalence of the comorbid diagnosis was 0.51% (0.28%-0.74%), with significant sex differences (0.16% girls, 0.89% boys). The cooccurrence of symptoms of autism and ADHD reported by parents or teachers was 3.2% and 2.6%, respectively. ADHD comorbidity was observed in 32.8% of autistic children and 31.4% of those with subthreshold ASD. ASD comorbidity was observed in 9.8% of children with ADHD and 5.7% of those with subthreshold ADHD. Comorbidity was reported by at least one informant in 95% of children. Only 15.8% of children with autism and ADHD had been previously diagnosed with both conditions. Early detection and accurate comorbidity diagnosis are crucial to address the clinical and socio-educational needs of these children.

Self-perceived bullying victimization in pre-adolescents on the autism spectrum: EPINED study.

LAY ABSTRACT: Autistic individuals face a higher risk of various forms of victimization throughout their lives, with bullying being especially prevalent during their school years. Previous studies indicate that autistic children are 2.4 times more likely to be bullied than their typically developing peers and twice as vulnerable as those with other disabilities. However, the extent of this issue among Spanish schoolchildren with autism remains unexplored. In addition, there is no information regarding the presence of bullying victimization in children with marked but undiagnosed autistic traits (i.e. subthreshold autistic traits). This study examines the self-reported prevalence of bullying victimization in autistic pre-adolescents and those with subthreshold autistic traits, comparing them with peers without neurodevelopmental conditions. The study involved 323 participants (11 and 12 years old; 45 with autism or subthreshold autistic traits) from Spanish general education schools. The results revealed a higher rate of bullying victimization among autistic participants (58%; 3.1 times higher risk) and those with subthreshold autistic traits (27%; 1.5 times higher risk) compared with their peers without neurodevelopmental conditions (18.3%). Victimization was linked to more intense restrictive behaviours and increased behavioural and emotional problems. No significant associations were found with other individual or family factors. Our findings underscore the heightened risk of bullying faced by autistic pre-adolescents and those with subthreshold autistic traits at school, emphasizing the need to identify and implement preventive measures to mitigate bullying and its detrimental impact on their mental well-being and overall quality of life.

Cluster analysis of teachers report for identifying symptoms of autism spectrum and/or attention deficit hyperactivity in school population: EPINED study.

An early detection of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs) is crucial for their prognosis; however, the clinical heterogeneity of some disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an obstacle to accurate diagnoses in children. In order to facilitate the screening process, the current study aimed to identify symptom-based clusters among a community-based sample of preschool and school-aged children, using behavioral characteristics reported by teachers. A total of 6894 children were assessed on four key variables: social communication differences, restricted behavior patterns, restless-impulsiveness, and emotional lability (pre-schoolers) or inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity (school-aged). From these behavioral profiles, four clusters were identified for each age group. A cluster of ASD + ADHD and others including children with no pathology was clearly identified, whereas two other clusters were characterized by subthreshold ASD and/or ADHD symptoms. In the school-age children, the presence of ADHD was consistently observed with ASD patterns. In pre-schoolers, teachers were more proficient at identifying children who received a diagnosis for either ASD and/or ADHD from an early stage. Considering the significance of early detection and intervention of NDDs, teachers' insights are important. Therefore, promptly identifying subthreshold symptoms in children can help to minimize consequences in social and academic functioning.

Psychometric Properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) in Spanish Adolescents.

Few studies have examined the psychometric properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) in a large adolescent community sample, finding a significant disparity. This study explores the psychometric properties of the CD-RISC among Spanish adolescents by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), Rasch analysis, and measurement invariance (MI) across sex, as well as internal consistency and criterion validity. The sample was comprised of 463 adolescents (231 girls), aged 12 to 18 years, who completed the CD-RISC and other measures on emotional status and quality of life. The EFA suggested that the CD-RISC structure presented a unidimensional model. Consequently, shorter unidimensional CD-RISC models observed in the literature were explored. Thus, the Campbell-Sills and Stein CD-RISC-10 showed the soundest psychometric properties, providing an adequate item fit and supporting MI and non-differential item functioning across sex. Item difficulty levels were biased toward low levels of resilience. Some items showed malfunctioning in lower response categories. With regard to reliability, categorical omega was. 82. Strong associations with health-related quality of life, major depressive disorder symptoms, and emotional symptoms were observed. A weak association was found between resilience and the male sex. Campbell-Sills and Stein's CD-RISC-10 model emerges as the best to assess resilience among Spanish adolescents, as already reported in adults. Thus, independently of the developmental stage, the core of resilience may reside in the aspects of hardiness and persistence.

Psychometric Properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) in Spanish Adolescents

Few studies have examined the psychometric properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) in a large adolescent community sample, finding a significant disparity. This study explores the psychometric properties of the CD-RISC among Spanish adolescents by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), Rasch analysis, and measurement invariance (MI) across sex, as well as internal consistency and criterion validity. The sample was comprised of 463 adolescents (231 girls), aged 12 to 18 years, who completed the CD-RISC and other measures on emotional status and quality of life. The EFA suggested that the CD-RISC structure presented a unidimensional model. Consequently, shorter unidimensional CD-RISC models observed in the literature were explored. Thus, the Campbell-Sills and Stein CD–RISC–10 showed the soundest psychometric properties, providing an adequate item fit and supporting MI and non-differential item functioning across sex. Item difficulty levels were biased toward low levels of resilience. Some items showed malfunctioning in lower response categories. With regard to reliability, categorical omega was. 82. Strong associations with health-related quality of life, major depressive disorder symptoms, and emotional symptoms were observed. A weak association was found between resilience and the male sex. Campbell-Sills and Stein’s CD–RISC–10 model emerges as the best to assess resilience among Spanish adolescents, as already reported in adults. Thus, independently of the developmental stage, the core of resilience may reside in the aspects of hardiness and persistence. (AU)

Self-Perceived Bullying Victimization in Pre-Adolescent Schoolchildren With ADHD.

BACKGROUND: Bullying is highly prevalent among children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study investigates self-perceived bullying victimization and related sociodemographic, psychopathological, cognitive, and academic characteristics in pre-adolescents with ADHD compared to controls. METHOD: The participants were 424 pre-adolescents, 138 of whom had ADHD. Self-perceived bullying victimization was assessed with the Bullying and School Violence questionnaire. This study is part of a larger double-phase epidemiologic cross-sectional study. RESULTS: A total of 35% of the ADHD pre-adolescents self-reported bullying victimization. ADHD-combined presentation showed the highest prevalence of co-occurring self-perceived bullying victimization. After the effects of socioeconomic level, gender, place of birth, intelligence quotient and autism had been controlled, we observed that presenting ADHD increased the likelihood of self-perceived bullying victimization almost 3-fold. Having ADHD and self-perceived bullying victimization were significantly associated with higher rates of the co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing psychological problems. Comorbidity with ASD was higher in ADHD + bullying cases. Pre-adolescents with ADHD had lower cognitive scores and worse academic outcomes regardless of whether they were being bullied or not. CONCLUSIONS: In bullying prevention and intervention, special attention should be paid to ADHD as a vulnerability factor for self-perceived victimization, with negative consequences for emotional well-being and behavior.

Randomized controlled trial for selective preventive transdiagnostic intervention for adolescents at risk for emotional disorders.

Significant evidence does exist on the effectiveness of transdiagnostic interventions to improve emotional problems in clinical populations, and their application as universal and indicated prevention programs. However, no randomized controlled trials (RCT) studying selective transdiagnostic prevention intervention have been published. This is the first known RCT to evaluate the efficacy/effectiveness of an evidence-based selective prevention transdiagnostic program for emotional problems in adolescents. The impact of three different interventions was evaluated: (1) PROCARE (Preventive transdiagnostic intervention for Adolescents at Risk for Emotional disorders), which is a group-based, abbreviated version of the Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders in Adolescents (UP-A), along with adding a booster session to reduce risk of onset of anxiety and depression, (2) PROCARE + , which includes the PROCARE protocol along with personalized add-on modules tailored to match adolescents' risk factors, and (3) an active control condition (ACC) based on emotional psychoeducation. In total, 208 adolescents (48.5% girls) evidencing high risk and low protective factors were randomized and allocated to PROCARE, PROCARE + or ACC. Data from 153 adolescents who completed all assessments in the different phases of the study were analyzed. Self- and parent-reported measures were taken at baseline, as well as after the intervention, a 6 month follow-up was carried out, together with a 1 month follow-up after the booster session. Differences between conditions were significant on most of the outcome measures, with superior effect sizes for PROCARE + in the short and long term. Interventions were acceptable in terms of acceptability, with good satisfaction rates. Tailored targeted selective transdiagnostic interventions focused on mitigating risk factors and promoting protective factors in vulnerable adolescents are promising.

Anthropometric status of preschoolers and elementary school children with ADHD: preliminary results from the EPINED study.

BACKGROUND: A current area of research interest is the association between ADHD and weight status. This paper aimed to describe the anthropometric status of school children with ADHD, considering age and clinical presentation (inattentive, hyperactive-impulsive, or combined), compared with control children. METHODS: Participants came from the "Epidemiological Research Project on Neurodevelopmental Disorders" and consisted of 198 preschoolers (41 with ADHD) and 389 elementary school children (163 with ADHD). ADHD was diagnosed using DSM-5 criteria. Anthropometric measurements were taken at various anatomical points, and height, weight, and body composition were also measured. RESULTS: In preschoolers, an association was found between hyperactive-impulsive ADHD and greater height and lower waist-to-height ratio. In elementary school children, regardless of the medication, combined ADHD was associated with smaller head, hip, arm, and thigh circumferences and lower weight, height, and BMI. A total of 19.7% of them were underweight. In contrast, children with inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive presentations presented the highest percentage of overweight/obesity (56%). CONCLUSION: The anthropometric status of the school children with ADHD showed differences in terms of age and presentation. Preschoolers with hyperactive-impulsive ADHD are taller, and elementary school children with combined ADHD are shorter and smaller than their age-matched control peers. IMPACT: The anthropometric status of the school children with ADHD showed differences in terms of age and presentation. Preschoolers with hyperactive-impulsive ADHD are taller than their control peers. Elementary school children with combined ADHD, regardless of the pharmacological treatment, are shorter and smaller than their control peers. Medication may anthropometrically affect the height of children with inattentive presentation. Anthropometric and dietary monitoring should be recommended to parents of children with ADHD, with and without medication.

Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollutants and Attentional Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Development in Children: A Systematic Review.

Up to 9.5% of the world's population is diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), making it one of the most common childhood disorders. Air pollutants could be considered an environmental risk condition for ADHD, but few studies have specifically investigated the effect of prenatal exposure. The current paper reviews the studies conducted on the association between prenatal air pollutants (PM, NOx, SO2, O3, CO and PAH) and ADHD development in children. From the 890 studies searched through PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, 15 cohort studies met the inclusion criteria. NOS and WHO guidelines were used for quality and risk of bias assessment. The accumulative sample was 589,400 of children aged 3-15 years. Most studies reported an association between ADHD symptoms and prenatal PAH and PM exposure. Data available on NO2 and SO2 were inconsistent, whereas the effect of CO/O3 is barely investigated. We observed heterogeneity through an odd ratio forest plot, and discrepancies in methodologies across the studies. Eight of the fifteen studies were judged to be of moderate risk of bias in the outcome measurement. In a nutshell, future studies should aim to minimize heterogeneity and reduce bias by ensuring a more representative sample, standardizing exposure and outcome assessments.

Emotional problems in preschool and school-aged children with neurodevelopmental disorders in Spain: EPINED epidemiological project.

BACKGROUND: Children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) are often at risk of developing emotional problems. AIMS AND METHODS: The co-occurrence of anxiety and depression with ASD and/or ADHD was determined by exploring the association with children's clinical and neuropsychological functioning and their parent's mental health. To this end, we assessed 295 preschoolers (PRE; 4-5 years old) and 486 school-aged children (SCH; 10-11 years old) in Tarragona, Spain. NDD diagnoses were based on DSM-5. Emotional problems were assessed using Achenbach's scales. RESULTS: Emotional problems (PRE: 36%-78%; SCH: 32%-81%) were more common and more severe in participants with NDD than in controls and children in the ASD + ADHD school-aged group were the most affected. In ADHD, emotional problems were associated with more severe symptoms of attention deficit (PRE) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (SCH). In ASD + ADHD, emotional problems showed a trend of association with more severe ASD repetitive behaviours and impaired working memory, whereas in ASD were associated with greater overall ASD severity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Children with NDD are vulnerable to emotional problems, which become more prevalent and interfering with age. Early detection and intervention aimed at tackling emotional problems can improve NDD prognosis.

Randomized controlled trial for selective preventive transdiagnostic intervention for adolescents at risk for emotional disorders.

Significant evidence does exist on the effectiveness of transdiagnostic interventions to improve emotional problems in clinical populations, and their application as universal and indicated prevention programs. However, no randomized controlled trials (RCT) studying selective transdiagnostic prevention intervention have been published. This is the first known RCT to evaluate the efficacy/effectiveness of an evidence-based selective prevention transdiagnostic program for emotional problems in adolescents. The impact of three different interventions was evaluated: (1) PROCARE (Preventive transdiagnostic intervention for Adolescents at Risk for Emotional disorders), which is a group-based, online-delivered, abbreviated version of the Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders in Adolescents (UP-A), along with adding a booster session, to reduce risk of onset of anxiety and depression, (2) PROCARE + , which includes the PROCARE protocol along with personalized add-on modules tailored to match adolescents' risk factors, and (3) an active control condition (ACC) based on emotional psychoeducation. In total, 286 adolescents (53.3% girls) evidencing high risk and low protective factors were randomized and allocated to PROCARE, PROCARE + or ACC. Self- and parent-reported measures were taken at baseline, as well as after the intervention, a 6-month follow-up was carried out, together with a 1-month follow-up after the booster session. Differences between conditions were significant on most of the outcome measures, with superior effect sizes for PROCARE +. Interventions were excellent in terms of acceptability, with good satisfaction rates. Tailored selective transdiagnostic interventions focused on mitigating risk factors and promoting protective factors in vulnerable adolescents are promising.

Nutrient intake and adequacy in children with autism spectrum disorder: EPINED epidemiological study.

LAY ABSTRACT: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have a fivefold elevated risk of developing eating problems, which predisposes them to nutritional deficiencies. This study assesses nutritional intake and adequacy in children with ASD, subdiagnostic autistic symptoms and typically developing (TD) children. Preschool children with ASD and subdiagnostic symptoms had slightly lower intake of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), vitamin D and vitamin B12. Primary school children with ASD and subdiagnostic symptoms had slightly higher intake of protein, cholesterol, thiamine and niacin, and a higher percentage of obesity than children with TD. All children had a high intake in sugars, fats and saturated fatty acids; a very highly inadequate intake of vitamins (vitamins D and E), fibre, b-carotene, calcium and magnesium; and a moderately inadequate intake of vitamin C, folate and iron. However, although all children need nutrition advice, children with ASD and subdiagnostic autistic symptoms had a poorer quality diet than those with TD.

Self-Perceived Bullying Victimization in Pre-Adolescent Schoolchildren With ADHD / Victimización por Acoso Autopercibida en Escolares Preadolescentes con TDAH

Background: Bullying is highly prevalent among children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study investigates self-perceived bullying victimization and related sociodemographic, psychopathological, cognitive, and academic characteristics in pre-adolescents with ADHD compared to controls. Method: The participants were 424 pre-adolescents, 138 of whom had ADHD. Self-perceived bullying victimization was assessed with the Bullying and School Violence questionnaire. This study is part of a larger double-phase epidemiologic cross-sectional study. Results: A total of 35% of the ADHD pre-adolescents self-reported bullying victimization. ADHD-combined presentation showed the highest prevalence of co-occurring self-perceived bullying victimization. After the effects of socioeconomic level, gender, place of birth, intelligence quotient and autism had been controlled, we observed that presenting ADHD increased the likelihood of self-perceived bullying victimization almost 3-fold. Having ADHD and self-perceived bullying victimization were significantly associated with higher rates of the co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing psychological problems. Comorbidity with ASD was higher in ADHD + bullying cases. Pre-adolescents with ADHD had lower cognitive scores and worse academic outcomes regardless of whether they were being bullied or not. Conclusions: In bullying prevention and intervention, special attention should be paid to ADHD as a vulnerability factor for self-perceived victimization, with negative consequences for emotional well-being and behavior.(AU)

Antecedentes: El acoso escolar es altamente prevalente entre niños/adolescentes con TDAH. Se estudió la victimización por acoso escolar autopercibida y las características sociodemográficas, psicopatológicas, cognitivas y académicas relacionadas en preadolescentes con TDAH en comparación con un grupo control. Método: Participaron 424 preadolescentes, 138 con TDAH. La victimización por acoso autopercibida se evaluó con el cuestionario de Acoso y Violencia Escolar. Este trabajo forma parte de un estudio epidemiológico transversal en doble fase más amplio. Resultados: El 35% de los preadolescentes con TDAH reportaron haber sido víctimas de acoso escolar. El TDAHpresentación combinada mostró la mayor coocurrencia de victimización por acoso autopercibida. Controlados los efectos del nivel socioeconómico, sexo, lugar de nacimiento, coeficiente intelectual y autismo, esta presentación aumentaba casi 3-veces la probabilidad de victimización por acoso autopercibida. El TDAH y la percepción de victimización se asociaron significativamente con altas tasas de coocurrencia de problemas psicológicos internalizantes/externalizantes. La comorbilidad con TEA fue mayor en el TDAH + acoso. Los preadolescentes TDAH tenían puntuaciones cognitivas más bajas y peores resultados académicos, independientemente de si estaban siendo acosados. Conclusiones: En prevención e intervención del bullyingdebe prestarse especial atención al TDAH como factor de vulnerabilidad, con consecuencias negativas para el bienestar emocional y comportamiento.(AU)

Do Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Follow a Different Dietary Pattern than That of Their Control Peers?

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents. A current area of interest is the association between ADHD and food consumption. The aim of this study was to determine the food consumption and dietary patterns of children with and without ADHD in relation to their age and ADHD presentation. The study involved 259 preschoolers aged 3 to 6 years old (57 with ADHD and 202 controls) and 475 elementary-school-age children, aged 10 to 12 years old (213 with ADHD and 262 controls) from Spain. ADHD was diagnosed in accordance with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition) from Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children interviews. Eating data were collected using a food consumption frequency questionnaire, and principal component analysis was carried out to analyze dietary patterns. Western-like, sweet, and healthy patterns were identified. The ADHD group was negatively associated with the healthy pattern (p < 0.001) and positively associated with the Western-like diet (p = 0.004). Children with inattentive presentation showed lower adherence (12.2%) to a healthy pattern than that of the control group (39.9%) (p < 0.001). There is an association between ADHD and dietary habits; children with inattentive presentation may particularly be at risk of unhealthy eating habits.

Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Eat Differently and Less Adequately than Those with Subclinical ASD and Typical Development? EPINED Epidemiological Study.

Food consumption in children with ASD, subclinical ASD and with typical development (TD), and their adequacy to dietary recommendations was studied. A school population sample of 77 children with ASD, 40 with subclinical ASD, and 333 with TD participated. Compared to children with TD, pre-schoolers with ASD consumed fewer raw vegetables and less fish and eggs, while primary school children consumed fewer legumes, raw vegetables, citrus fruits, cheese/yogurt and olive oil, and more meat. All groups consumed an excess of sugar but those with ASD consumed even a greater amount than their peers. The higher prevalence of obesity found in primary school children with ASD may be the consequence of a less healthy eating pattern sustained over time.

Autism spectrum disorder prevalence and associated sociodemographic factors in the school population: EPINED study.

LAY ABSTRACT: An increase in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder has been reported around the world over the past decade. However, the prevalence data for southern Europe seem to be lower than international reports and notable methodological differences have been reported among studies. The objective of the Neurodevelopmental Disorders Epidemiological Research Project was to estimate the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in a representative school sample of the province of Tarragona, Spain. The study included a screening procedure through parents (N = 3727) and teachers (N = 6894), and an individual assessment of children at risk and a comparison group (N = 781). The overall estimated prevalence in our sample was 1.53%, being significantly higher than the 0.83% previously registered diagnoses. A total of 3.31% of the children presented subclinical characteristics of autism spectrum disorder. Girls showed a significantly lower estimated prevalence in all the conditions. Severity profiles were distributed as 46% mild, 47% moderate and 7% severe. Psychological support (65%), educational support (65%) and language therapy (51%) were given to children with autism spectrum disorder. Pharmacological treatment was only found among school-aged children (37.5%). Public schools provided more educational supports (72%) than private schools (36%). The heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder makes it difficult to determine specific associated sociodemographic factors. The results confirmed a high prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in the province, suggesting a current under-diagnosis in public health services. In view of the results, it is important to promote early diagnosis and intervention, especially in particular groups such as girls, children with intellectual disabilities and children from immigrant families.

Are there anthropometric and body composition differences between children with autism spectrum disorder and children with typical development? Analysis by age and spectrum severity in a school population.

LAY ABSTRACT: This study makes a comparison between the growth status of pre-school and school-age children with autism spectrum disorder and typical development children. Pre-schoolers with autism spectrum disorder were taller than children with typical development. School-age children with autism spectrum disorder were more overweight/obese, had more body fat and a greater waist circumference and waist/height ratio than children with typical development. The presence of autism spectrum disorder and internalizing problems was associated with cardiovascular risk in school-age children.

Prevalence and Epidemiological Characteristics of ADHD in Pre-School and School Age Children in the Province of Tarragona, Spain.

Objective: To report the ADHD estimated prevalence in Spain, considering differences in sex, age, presentation, and severity. Method: This study has a two-phase design and forms part of the Neurodevelopmental Disorders Epidemiological Research Project (EPINED). The ADHD screening was conducted through parent (N = 3,727) and teacher (N = 6,894). To perform ADHD diagnosis (DSM-5), screen positive and a subsample of the screen negative children and their parents were assessed using neuropsychological tests and a semi-structured psychiatric interview. Results: The ADHD overall estimate prevalence was 5.5% (7.7% in school-age children; 3.0% in pre-schoolers) and 3.5% for subclinical conditions. The combined presentation and mild severity were the most common, while 18.2% were highly impaired. Previous diagnoses were found in 12% of pre-schoolers and 41% school-aged. Conclusion: The prevalence found in Spain is higher than other European reports. The low ratio of prior-diagnoses indicates a need to provide resources for assessment in school and clinical settings.

Prenatal and perinatal factors associated with ADHD risk in schoolchildren: EPINED epidemiological study.

The aim of this study is to assess the relationship between pre- and perinatal factors and ADHD in a sample of scholars exploring differences between ADHD presentations and spectrum of severity. A total of 6720 scholars (aged 3-4 and 10-11) participated in a double-phase epidemiologic cross-sectional study (Epidemiological Study of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, EPINED), and a sample of 646 scholars (ADHD risk, ASD risk and controls without risk) were individually assessed in the second phase of the study. The ADHD diagnosis, based on DSM-5 criteria, was performed with the Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders & Schizophrenia, Present & Lifetime Version. Associations for the different ADHD presentations between prenatal, perinatal and postnatal factors and ADHD (n = 168), subclinical ADHD (n = 88) and non-ADHD (n = 310) were analysed. Logistic regression models showed that gestational diabetes (p = 0.012), instrumental delivery (p = 0.011), family history of psychopathology (p = 0.033) and maternal ADHD phenotype (p = 0.023) were associated with ADHD. These factors were related to the hyperactive-impulsive and combined presentations, but they were not related to the inattentive presentation. Maternal weight gain was associated with subclinical ADHD. In conclusion, metabolic disorder in the pregnancy, difficulties in childbirth and specific family phenotype were related to ADHD, specifically with hyperactive-impulsive presentation, but not in subclinical ADHD.