Development and calibration of a real-time airborne radioactivity monitor using direct gamma-ray spectrometry with two scintillation detectors.

The implementation of in-situ gamma-ray spectrometry in an automatic real-time environmental radiation surveillance network can help to identify and characterize abnormal radioactivity increases quickly. For this reason, a Real-time Airborne Radioactivity Monitor using direct gamma-ray spectrometry with two scintillation detectors (RARM-D2) was developed. The two scintillation detectors in the RARM-D2 are strategically shielded with Pb to permit the separate measurement of the airborne isotopes with respect to the deposited isotopes.In this paper, we describe the main aspects of the development and calibration of the RARM-D2 when using NaI(Tl) or LaBr3(Ce) detectors. The calibration of the monitor was performed experimentally with the exception of the efficiency curve, which was set using Monte Carlo (MC) simulations with the EGS5 code system. Prior to setting the efficiency curve, the effect of the radioactive source term size on the efficiency calculations was studied for the gamma-rays from (137)Cs. Finally, to study the measurement capabilities of the RARM-D2, the minimum detectable activity concentrations for (131)I and (137)Cs were calculated for typical spectra at different integration times.

Implementation of gamma-ray spectrometry in two real-time water monitors using NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors.

In this study, the implementation of gamma-ray spectrometry in two real-time water monitors using 2 in. × 2 in. NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors is described. These monitors collect the water from the river through a pump and it is analyzed in a vessel, which is shielded with Pb. The full calibration of the monitors was performed experimentally, except for the efficiency curve, which was set using validated Monte Carlo simulations with the EGS5 code system. After the calibration, the monitors permitted the identification and quantification of the involved isotopes in a possible radioactive increment and made it possible to discard possible leaks in the nuclear plants. As an example, a radiological increment during rain is used to show the advantages of gamma-ray spectrometry. To study the capabilities of the monitor, the minimum detectable activity concentrations for (131)I, (137)Cs and (40)K are presented for different integration times.

Dosimetry of a cone beam CT device for oral and maxillofacial radiology using Monte Carlo techniques and ICRP adult reference computational phantoms.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to calculate organ and effective doses for a range of available protocols in a particular cone beam CT (CBCT) scanner dedicated to dentistry and to derive effective dose conversion factors. METHODS: Monte Carlo simulations were used to calculate organ and effective doses using the International Commission on Radiological Protection voxel adult male and female reference phantoms (AM and AF) in an i-CAT CBCT. Nine different fields of view (FOVs) were simulated considering full- and half-rotation modes, and also a high-resolution acquisition for a particular protocol. Dose-area product (DAP) was measured. RESULTS: Dose to organs varied for the different FOVs, usually being higher in the AF phantom. For 360°, effective doses were in the range of 25-66 µSv, and 46 µSv for full head. Higher contributions to the effective dose corresponded to the remainder (31%; 27-36 range), salivary glands (23%; 20-29%), thyroid (13%; 8-17%), red bone marrow (10%; 9-11%) and oesophagus (7%; 4-10%). The high-resolution protocol doubled the standard resolution doses. DAP values were between 181 mGy cm(2) and 556 mGy cm(2) for 360°. For 180° protocols, dose to organs, effective dose and DAP were approximately 40% lower. A conversion factor (DAP to effective dose) of 0.130 ± 0.006 µSv mGy(-1) cm(-2) was derived for all the protocols, excluding full head. A wide variation in dose to eye lens and thyroid was found when shifting the FOV in the AF phantom. CONCLUSIONS: Organ and effective doses varied according to field size, acquisition angle and positioning of the beam relative to radiosensitive organs. Good positive correlation between calculated effective dose and measured DAP was found.

Validation of a Monte Carlo simulation for dose assessment in dental cone beam CT examinations.

A Monte Carlo (MC) simulation for calculating absorbed dose has been developed and applied for dental applications with an i-CAT cone beam CT (CBCT) system. To validate the method a comparison was made between calculated and measured dose values for two different clinical protocols. Measurements with a pencil CT chamber were performed free-in-air and in a CT dose head phantom; measurements were also performed with a transmission ionization chamber. In addition for each protocol a total number of 58 thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLD) were packed in groups and placed at 16 representative anatomical locations of an anthropomorphic phantom (Remab system) to assess absorbed doses. To simulate X-ray exposure, a software application based on the EGS4 package was applied. Dose quantities were calculated for different voxelized models representing the CT ionization and transmission chambers, the TLDs, and the phantoms as well. The dose quantities evaluated in the comparison were the accumulated dose averaged along the rotation axis (D(i)), the volume average dose,D(vol) for the dosimetric phantom, the dose area product (DAP) and the absorbed dose for the TLDs. Absolute differences between measured and simulated outcomes were ≤ 2.1% for free-in-air doses; ≤ 6.2% in the 5 cavities of the CT dose head phantom; ≤ 13% for TLDs inside the primary beam. Such differences were considered acceptable in all cases and confirmed the validity of the MC program for different geometries. In conclusion, the devised MC simulation program can be a robust tool to optimize protocols and estimate patient doses for CBCT units in dental, oral and maxillofacial radiology.

Performance of data acceptance criteria over 50 months from an automatic real-time environmental radiation surveillance network.

The automatic real-time environmental radiation surveillance network of Catalonia (Spain) comprises two subnetworks; one with 9 aerosol monitors and the other with 8 Geiger monitors together with 2 water monitors located in the Ebre river. Since September 2006, several improvements were implemented in order to get better quality and quantity of data, allowing a more accurate data analysis. However, several causes (natural causes, equipment failure, artificial external causes and incidents in nuclear power plants) may produce radiological measured values mismatched with the own station background, whether spurious without significance or true radiological values. Thus, data analysis for a 50-month period was made and allowed to establish an easily implementable statistical criterion to find those values that require special attention. This criterion proved a very useful tool for creating a properly debugged database and to give a quick response to equipment failures or possible radiological incidents. This paper presents the results obtained from the criterion application, including the figures for the expected, raw and debugged data, percentages of missing data grouped by causes and radiological measurements from the networks. Finally, based on the discussed information, recommendations for the improvement of the network are identified to obtain better radiological information and analysis capabilities.

Collimator with filtration compensator: clinical adaptation to meet European Union recommendation 4F on radiological protection for dental radiography.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to develop a compensated filtration collimator for use in paediatric patients undergoing cephalometric radiography that reduces the radiation dose administered and fulfils recommendation 4F of the European guidelines on radiation protection in dental radiology. METHODS: An easy to use filtration-compensated collimator was constructed of plastic, lead and aluminium and used randomly with a group of 32 children (mean age 11 years) undergoing cephalometric radiography before receiving orthodontic treatment. The radiation doses administered to patients (eye lens and thyroid, submandibular and parotid glands) and to the chassis of the radiographic equipment were determined. RESULTS: The filtration-compensated collimator is easily fixed to the external surface of the radiographic equipment and results in (a) as collimator, a reduction of 40% in the surface irradiated in the children and of 61.4% in the dose administered to the thyroid glands (P<0.001); (b) as filtration compensator, a reduction of 32.8% administered to the eye lens (P<0.001), 31.45% to the submaxillary gland (P<0.01) and 11.4% to the parotid gland (P<0.05); there was no difference in the dose determined on the radiographic film. CONCLUSIONS: A radiographic examination can be carried out with children using only a third of the dose normally used with no increase in the time or cost involved.

Monte Carlo calculation of radiation dose in CT examinations using phantom and patient tomographic models.

By using a voxel-based Monte Carlo simulation technique, we developed and validated a method to calculate radiation-absorbed dose in the computed tomography (CT) examinations from the images of phantoms and patients. The ionising radiation transport was simulated using the EGS4 code system. The geometry of the X-ray beam (focus-to-axis distance, field of view, collimation, and primary and beam-shaper filtration) and the X-ray spectral distribution (HiSpeed LX/i) were included in the simulation. Each axial CT image was reduced to a 256 x 256 matrix and stacked in a volume. The patient images were segmented before the simulation of radiation transport by using four categories of materials, such as air, lung, muscle and bone. To test the voxel-based method, the values of the radiation dose derived from a simulated CT exposure were calculated and compared with those obtained from the measurements performed within the dosimetry phantoms. To complete the scope of the work, series of CT scans of the trunk of an anthropomorphic phantom and patients were simulated to calculate the average dose in each 1-cm-wide transverse slice (ADS). The comparison between the simulated and measured dose data for the CT indices showed a difference of <5% in all the cases. The estimated mean values of ADS from the chest, abdomen and pelvis of the anthropomorphic phantom were approximately 1.7-2 times the weighted CT dose index (CTDI(w)) value, whereas the mean ADS values for these anatomical areas were 1.3-2 times the CTDI(w) of patients. The voxel-based simulation method provided a technique for estimating the individual patient doses in the CT examinations.