Multiple parallel cell lineages in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex.

Cortical neurogenesis follows a simple lineage: apical radial glia cells (RGCs) generate basal progenitors, and these produce neurons. How this occurs in species with expanded germinal zones and a folded cortex, such as human, remains unclear. We used single-cell RNA sequencing from individual cortical germinal zones in ferret and barcoded lineage tracking to determine the molecular diversity of progenitor cells and their lineages. We identified multiple RGC classes that initiate parallel lineages, converging onto a common class of newborn neuron. Parallel RGC classes and transcriptomic trajectories were repeated across germinal zones and conserved in ferret and human, but not in mouse. Neurons followed parallel differentiation trajectories in the gyrus and sulcus, with different expressions of human cortical malformation genes. Progenitor cell lineage multiplicity is conserved in the folded mammalian cerebral cortex.

Input-dependent segregation of visual and somatosensory circuits in the mouse superior colliculus.

Whereas sensory perception relies on specialized sensory pathways, it is unclear whether these pathways originate as modality-specific circuits. We demonstrated that somatosensory and visual circuits are not by default segregated but require the earliest retinal activity to do so. In the embryo, somatosensory and visual circuits are intermingled in the superior colliculus, leading to cortical multimodal responses to whisker pad stimulation. At birth, these circuits segregate, and responses switch to unimodal. Blocking stage I retinal waves prolongs the multimodal configuration into postnatal life, with the superior colliculus retaining a mixed somato-visual molecular identity and defects arising in the spatial organization of the visual system. Hence, the superior colliculus mediates the timely segregation of sensory modalities in an input-dependent manner, channeling specific sensory cues to their appropriate sensory pathway.

Uncoupling axon guidance and neuronal migration in Robo3-deficient inferior olivary neurons.

Inferior olivary (IO) neurons are born in the dorsal hindbrain and migrate tangentially toward the ventral midline. During their dorsoventral migration, IO neurons extend long leading processes that cross the midline, transform into axons, and project into the contralateral cerebellum. In absence of the axon guidance receptor Robo3, IO axons fail to cross the midline and project to the ipsilateral cerebellum. Remarkably, the IO cell bodies still reach the midline where they form a nucleus of abnormal cytoarchitecture. The mechanisms underlying the migration of Robo3-deficient IO neurons are unknown. Here, we used three-dimensional imaging and transgenic mice to label subsets of IO neurons and study their migratory behavior in Robo3 knockout. We show that IO migration is delayed in absence of Robo3. Strikingly, Robo3-deficient IO neurons progress toward the midline in a direction opposite to their axons. This occurs through a change of polarity and the generation of a second leading process at the rear of the cell. These results suggest that Robo3 receptor controls the establishment of neuronal polarity and the coupling of axonogenesis and cell body migration in IO neurons.

Gli2-Mediated Shh Signaling Is Required for Thalamocortical Projection Guidance.

The thalamocortical projections are part of the most important higher level processing connections in the vertebrates and follow a highly ordered pathway from their origin in the thalamus to the cerebral cortex. Their functional complexities are not only due to an extremely elaborate axon guidance process but also due to activity-dependent mechanisms. Gli2 is an intermediary transcription factor in the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway. During neural early development, Shh has an important role in dorsoventral patterning, diencephalic anteroposterior patterning, and many later developmental processes, such as axon guidance and cell migration. Using a Gli2 knockout mouse line, we have studied the role of Shh signaling mediated by Gli2 in the development of the thalamocortical projections during embryonic development. In wild-type brains, we have described the normal trajectory of the thalamocortical axons into the context of the prosomeric model. Then, we have compared it with the altered thalamocortical axons course in Gli2 homozygous embryos. The thalamocortical axons followed different trajectories and were misdirected to other territories probably due to alterations in the Robo/Slit signaling mechanism. In conclusion, the alteration of Gli2-mediated Shh signaling produces an erroneous specification of several territories related with the thalamocortical axons. This is translated into a huge modification in the pathfinding signaling mechanisms needed for the correct wiring of the thalamocortical axons.

Loss of floor plate Netrin-1 impairs midline crossing of corticospinal axons and leads to mirror movements.

In humans, execution of unimanual movements requires lateralized activation of the primary motor cortex, which then transmits the motor command to the contralateral hand through the crossed corticospinal tract (CST). Mutations in NTN1 alter motor control lateralization, leading to congenital mirror movements. To address the role of midline Netrin-1 on CST development and subsequent motor control, we analyze the morphological and functional consequences of floor plate Netrin-1 depletion in conditional knockout mice. We show that depletion of floor plate Netrin-1 in the brainstem critically disrupts CST midline crossing, whereas the other commissural systems are preserved. The only associated defect is an abnormal entry of CST axons within the inferior olive. Alteration of CST midline crossing results in functional ipsilateral projections and is associated with abnormal symmetric movements. Our study reveals the role of Netrin-1 in CST development and describes a mouse model recapitulating the characteristics of human congenital mirror movements.

Neural Stem Cells Direct Axon Guidance via Their Radial Fiber Scaffold.

Neural stem cells directly or indirectly generate all neurons and macroglial cells and guide migrating neurons by using a palisade-like scaffold made of their radial fibers. Here, we describe an unexpected role for the radial fiber scaffold in directing corticospinal and other axons at the junction between the striatum and globus pallidus. The maintenance of this scaffold, and consequently axon pathfinding, is dependent on the expression of an atypical RHO-GTPase, RND3/RHOE, together with its binding partner ARHGAP35/P190A, a RHO GTPase-activating protein, in the radial glia-like neural stem cells within the ventricular zone of the medial ganglionic eminence. This role is independent of RND3 and ARHGAP35 expression in corticospinal neurons, where they regulate dendritic spine formation, axon elongation, and pontine midline crossing in a FEZF2-dependent manner. The prevalence of neural stem cell scaffolds and their expression of RND3 and ARHGAP35 suggests that these observations might be broadly relevant for axon guidance and neural circuit formation.

Synergistic Activity of Floor-Plate- and Ventricular-Zone-Derived Netrin-1 in Spinal Cord Commissural Axon Guidance.

In vertebrates, commissural axons extend ventrally toward the floor plate in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Netrin-1, secreted by floor plate cells, was proposed to attract commissural axons at a distance. However, recent genetic studies in mice have shown that netrin-1 is also produced by ventricular zone (VZ) progenitors and that in the hindbrain, it represents the main source of netrin-1 for commissural axons. Here, we show that genetically deleting netrin-1 either from the VZ or the floor plate does not prevent midline crossing in the spinal cord, although axon pathfinding and fasciculation are perturbed. Strikingly, the VZ and floor plate act synergistically, as the simultaneous ablation of netrin-1 from these two sources severely impedes crossing. These results suggest that floor-plate-derived netrin-1 has a distinct impact on commissural axons in the spinal cord and hindbrain.

Long-Range Guidance of Spinal Commissural Axons by Netrin1 and Sonic Hedgehog from Midline Floor Plate Cells.

An important model for axon pathfinding is provided by guidance of embryonic commissural axons from dorsal spinal cord to ventral midline floor plate (FP). FP cells produce a chemoattractive activity, comprised largely of netrin1 (FP-netrin1) and Sonic hedgehog (Shh), that can attract the axons at a distance in vitro. netrin1 is also produced by ventricular zone (VZ) progenitors along the axons' route (VZ-netrin1). Recent studies using region-specific netrin1 deletion suggested that FP-netrin1 is dispensable and VZ-netrin1 sufficient for netrin guidance activity in vivo. We show that removing FP-netrin1 actually causes guidance defects in spinal cord consistent with long-range action (i.e., over hundreds of micrometers), and double mutant analysis supports that FP-netrin1 and Shh collaborate to attract at long range. We further provide evidence that netrin1 may guide via chemotaxis or haptotaxis. These results support the model that netrin1 signals at both short and long range to guide commissural axons in spinal cord.

The Amniote Oculomotor Complex.

The oculomotor (OM) complex is a combination of somatic and parasympatethic neurons. The correct development and wiring of this cranial pair is essential to perform basic functions: eyeball and eyelid movements, pupillary constriction, and lens accommodation. The improper formation or function of this nucleus leads pathologies such as strabismus. We describe the OM organization and function in different vertebrate brains, including chick, mouse, and human. The morphological localization is detailed, as well as the spatial relation with the trochlear nucleus in order to adjust some misleading anatomical topographic descriptions. We detailed the signaling processes needed for the specification of the OM neurons. The transcriptional programs driven the specification and differentiation of these neurons are partially determined. We summarized recent genetic studies that have led to the identification of guidance mechanisms involved in the migration, axon pathfinding, and targeting of the OM neurons. Finally, we overviewed the pathology associated to genetic malformations in the OM development and related clinical alterations. Anat Rec, 302:446-451, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Commissural neurons transgress the CNS/PNS boundary in absence of ventricular zone-derived netrin 1.

During the development of the central nervous system (CNS), only motor axons project into peripheral nerves. Little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control the development of a boundary at the CNS surface and prevent CNS neuron emigration from the neural tube. It has previously been shown that a subset of spinal cord commissural axons abnormally invades sensory nerves in Ntn1 hypomorphic embryos and Dcc knockouts. However, whether netrin 1 also plays a similar role in the brain is unknown. In the hindbrain, precerebellar neurons migrate tangentially under the pial surface, and their ventral migration is guided by netrin 1. Here, we show that pontine neurons and inferior olivary neurons, two types of precerebellar neurons, are not confined to the CNS in Ntn1 and Dcc mutant mice, but that they invade the trigeminal, auditory and vagus nerves. Using a Ntn1 conditional knockout, we show that netrin 1, which is released at the pial surface by ventricular zone progenitors is responsible for the CNS confinement of precerebellar neurons. We propose, that netrin 1 distribution sculpts the CNS boundary by keeping CNS neurons in netrin 1-rich domains.

Floor-plate-derived netrin-1 is dispensable for commissural axon guidance.

Netrin-1 is an evolutionarily conserved, secreted extracellular matrix protein involved in axon guidance at the central nervous system midline. Netrin-1 is expressed by cells localized at the central nervous system midline, such as those of the floor plate in vertebrate embryos. Growth cone turning assays and three-dimensional gel diffusion assays have shown that netrin-1 can attract commissural axons. Loss-of-function experiments further demonstrated that commissural axon extension to the midline is severely impaired in the absence of netrin-1 (refs 3, 7, 8, 9). Together, these data have long supported a model in which commissural axons are attracted by a netrin-1 gradient diffusing from the midline. Here we selectively ablate netrin-1 expression in floor-plate cells using a Ntn1 conditional knockout mouse line. We find that hindbrain and spinal cord commissural axons develop normally in the absence of floor-plate-derived netrin-1. Furthermore, we show that netrin-1 is highly expressed by cells in the ventricular zone, which can release netrin-1 at the pial surface where it binds to commissural axons. Notably, Ntn1 deletion from the ventricular zone phenocopies commissural axon guidance defects previously described in Ntn1-knockout mice. These results show that the classical view that attraction of commissural axons is mediated by a gradient of floor-plate-derived netrin-1 is inaccurate and that netrin-1 primarily acts locally by promoting growth cone adhesion.

Molecular regionalization of the developing amphioxus neural tube challenges major partitions of the vertebrate brain.

All vertebrate brains develop following a common Bauplan defined by anteroposterior (AP) and dorsoventral (DV) subdivisions, characterized by largely conserved differential expression of gene markers. However, it is still unclear how this Bauplan originated during evolution. We studied the relative expression of 48 genes with key roles in vertebrate neural patterning in a representative amphioxus embryonic stage. Unlike nonchordates, amphioxus develops its central nervous system (CNS) from a neural plate that is homologous to that of vertebrates, allowing direct topological comparisons. The resulting genoarchitectonic model revealed that the amphioxus incipient neural tube is unexpectedly complex, consisting of several AP and DV molecular partitions. Strikingly, comparison with vertebrates indicates that the vertebrate thalamus, pretectum, and midbrain domains jointly correspond to a single amphioxus region, which we termed Di-Mesencephalic primordium (DiMes). This suggests that these domains have a common developmental and evolutionary origin, as supported by functional experiments manipulating secondary organizers in zebrafish and mice.

Growth and differentiation factor 10 (Gdf10) is involved in Bergmann glial cell development under Shh regulation.

Growth differentiation factor 10 (Gdf10), also known as Bmp3b, is a member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß superfamily. Gdf10 is expressed in Bergmann glial cells, which was investigated by single-cell transcriptional profiling (Koirala and Corfas, (2010) PLoS ONE 5: e9198). Here we provide a detailed characterization of Gdf10 expression from E14, the stage at which Gdf10 is expressed for the first time in the cerebellum, until P28. We detected Gdf10 expression in both germinal zones: in the ventricular zone (VZ) of the 4th ventricle as well as in the rhombic lip (RL). The VZ has been postulated to give rise to GABAergic neurons and glial cells, whereas the RL gives rise to glutamatergic neurons. Thus, it was very surprising to discover a gene that is expressed exclusively in glial cells and is not restricted to an expression in the VZ, but is also present in the RL. At postnatal stages Gdf10 was distributed equally in Bergmann glial cells of the cerebellum. Furthermore, we found Gdf10 to be regulated by Sonic hedgehog (Shh), which is secreted by Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. In the conditional Shh mutants, glial cells showed a reduced expression of Gdf10, whereas the expression of Nestin and Vimentin was unchanged. Thus, we show for the first time, that Gdf10, expressed in Bergmann glial cells, is affected by the loss of Shh as early as E18.5, suggesting a regulation of glial development by Shh.

Dynamic expression patterns of Nkx6.1 and Nkx6.2 in the developing mes-diencephalic basal plate.

The components of the molecular codes needed to specify the different neuronal populations present in the basal neural tube are being identified. These codes become more intricate as we move to more anterior regions of the central nervous system. The aim of this study is to thoroughly analyze the expression pattern of Nkx6.1, Nkx6.2, and Pou4f1. These three genes are candidates to play an important role in the determination and differentiation of the basal nuclei of the mesencephalon and diencephalon. The results obtained have shown that there is a longitudinal domain positive for both Nkx6.1 and Nkx6.2 that is medial to the Pou4f1-positive red nucleus. This domain could correspond to part of the reticular formation, which extends from the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. The nuclei integrated in this domain would be the rostral interstitial nucleus, the interstitial nucleus of Cajal, and a mesencephalic equivalent to these nuclei.