Embelin as Lead Compound for New Neuroserpin Polymerization Inhibitors.

Familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB) is a severe and lethal neurodegenerative disease. Upon specific point mutations in the SERPINI1gene-coding for the human protein neuroserpin (NS) the resulting pathologic NS variants polymerize and accumulate within the endoplasmic reticulum of neurons in the central nervous system. To date, embelin (EMB) is the only known inhibitor of NS polymerization in vitro. This molecule is capable of preventing NS polymerization and dissolving preformed polymers. Here, we show that lowering EMB concentration results in increasing size of NS oligomers in vitro. Moreover, we observe that in cells expressing NS, the polymerization of G392E NS is reduced, but this effect is mediated by an increased proteasomal degradation rather than polymerization impairment. For these reasons we designed a systematic chemical evolution of the EMB scaffold aimed to improve its anti-polymerization properties. The effect of EMB analogs against NS polymerization was assessed in vitro. None of the EMB analogs displayed an anti-polymerization activity better than the one reported for EMB, indicating that the EMB-NS interaction surface is very specific and highly optimized. Thus, our results indicate that EMB is, to date, still the best candidate for developing a treatment against NS polymerization.

Neuroserpin polymers cause oxidative stress in a neuronal model of the dementia FENIB.

The serpinopathies are human pathologies caused by mutations that promote polymerisation and intracellular deposition of proteins of the serpin superfamily, leading to a poorly understood cell toxicity. The dementia FENIB is caused by polymerisation of the neuronal serpin neuroserpin (NS) within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of neurons. With the aim of understanding the toxicity due to intracellular accumulation of neuroserpin polymers, we have generated transgenic neural progenitor cell (NPC) cultures from mouse foetal cerebral cortex, stably expressing the control protein GFP (green fluorescent protein), or human wild type, G392E or delta NS. We have characterised these cell lines in the proliferative state and after differentiation to neurons. Our results show that G392E NS formed polymers that were mostly retained within the ER, while wild type NS was correctly secreted as a monomeric protein into the culture medium. Delta NS was absent at steady state due to its rapid degradation, but it was easily detected upon proteasomal block. Looking at their intracellular distribution, wild type NS was found in partial co-localisation with ER and Golgi markers, while G392E NS was localised within the ER only. Furthermore, polymers of NS were detected by ELISA and immunofluorescence in neurons expressing the mutant but not the wild type protein. We used control GFP and G392E NPCs differentiated to neurons to investigate which cellular pathways were modulated by intracellular polymers by performing RNA sequencing. We identified 747 genes with a significant upregulation (623) or downregulation (124) in G392E NS-expressing cells, and we focused our attention on several genes involved in the defence against oxidative stress that were up-regulated in cells expressing G392E NS (Aldh1b1, Apoe, Gpx1, Gstm1, Prdx6, Scara3, Sod2). Inhibition of intracellular anti-oxidants by specific pharmacological reagents uncovered the damaging effects of NS polymers. Our results support a role for oxidative stress in the cellular toxicity underlying the neurodegenerative dementia FENIB.

Embelin binds to human neuroserpin and impairs its polymerisation.

Neuroserpin (NS) is a serpin inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) in the brain. The polymerisation of NS pathologic mutants is responsible for a genetic dementia known as familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB). So far, a pharmacological treatment of FENIB, i.e. an inhibitor of NS polymerisation, remains an unmet challenge. Here, we present a biophysical characterisation of the effects caused by embelin (EMB a small natural compound) on NS conformers and NS polymerisation. EMB destabilises all known NS conformers, specifically binding to NS molecules with a 1:1 NS:EMB molar ratio without unfolding the NS fold. In particular, NS polymers disaggregate in the presence of EMB, and their formation is prevented. The NS/EMB complex does not inhibit tPA proteolytic activity. Both effects are pharmacologically relevant: firstly by inhibiting the NS polymerisation associated to FENIB, and secondly by potentially antagonizing metastatic processes facilitated by NS activity in the brain.

Interactions between N-linked glycosylation and polymerisation of neuroserpin within the endoplasmic reticulum.

The neuronal serpin neuroserpin undergoes polymerisation as a consequence of point mutations that alter its conformational stability, leading to a neurodegenerative dementia called familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB). Neuroserpin is a glycoprotein with predicted glycosylation sites at asparagines 157, 321 and 401. We used site-directed mutagenesis, transient transfection, western blot, metabolic labelling and ELISA to probe the relationship between glycosylation, folding, polymerisation and degradation of neuroserpin in validated cell models of health and disease. Our data show that glycosylation at N157 and N321 plays an important role in maintaining the monomeric state of neuroserpin, and we propose this is the result of steric hindrance or effects on local conformational dynamics that can contribute to polymerisation. Asparagine residue 401 is not glycosylated in wild type neuroserpin and in several polymerogenic variants that cause FENIB, but partial glycosylation was observed in the G392E mutant of neuroserpin that causes severe, early-onset dementia. Our findings indicate that N401 glycosylation reports lability of the C-terminal end of neuroserpin in its native state. This C-terminal lability is not required for neuroserpin polymerisation in the endoplasmic reticulum, but the additional glycan facilitates degradation of the mutant protein during proteasomal impairment. In summary, our results indicate how normal and variant-specific N-linked glycosylation events relate to intracellular folding, misfolding, degradation and polymerisation of neuroserpin.

The stability and activity of human neuroserpin are modulated by a salt bridge that stabilises the reactive centre loop.

Neuroserpin (NS) is an inhibitory protein belonging to the serpin family and involved in several pathologies, including the dementia Familial Encephalopathy with Neuroserpin Inclusion Bodies (FENIB), a genetic neurodegenerative disease caused by accumulation of NS polymers. Our Molecular Dynamics simulations revealed the formation of a persistent salt bridge between Glu289 on strand s2C and Arg362 on the Reactive Centre Loop (RCL), a region important for the inhibitory activity of NS. Here, we validated this structural feature by simulating the Glu289Ala mutant, where the salt bridge is not present. Further, MD predictions were tested in vitro by purifying recombinant Glu289Ala NS from E. coli. The thermal and chemical stability along with the polymerisation propensity of both Wild Type and Glu289Ala NS were characterised by circular dichroism, emission spectroscopy and non-denaturant gel electrophoresis, respectively. The activity of both variants against the main target protease, tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), was assessed by SDS-PAGE and chromogenic kinetic assay. Our results showed that deletion of the salt bridge leads to a moderate but clear reduction of the overall protein stability and activity.

Crucial role of nicotinic α5 subunit variants for Ca2+ fluxes in ventral midbrain neurons.

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing the α5 subunit modulate nicotine consumption, and the human CHRNA5 rs16969968 polymorphism, causing the replacement of the aspartic acid residue at position 398 with an asparagine (α5DN), has recently been associated with increased use of tobacco and higher incidence of lung cancer. We show that in ventral midbrain neurons, the α5 subunit is essential for heteromeric nAChR-induced intracellular-free Ca(2+) concentration elevations and that in α5(-/-) mice, a class of large-amplitude nicotine-evoked currents is lost. Furthermore, the expression of the α5DN subunit is not able to restore nicotinic responses, indicating a loss of function by this subunit in native neurons. To understand how α5DN impairs heteromeric nAChR functions, we coexpressed α4, α5, or α5DN subunits with a dimeric concatemer (ß2α4) in a heterologous system, to obtain nAChRs with fixed stoichiometry. Both α5(ß2α4)2 and α5DN(ß2α4)2 nAChRs yielded similar levels of functional expression and Ca(2+) permeability, measured as fractional Ca(2+) currents (8.2 ± 0.7% and 8.0 ± 1.9%, respectively), 2-fold higher than α4(ß2α4)2. Our results indicate that the loss of function of nicotinic responses observed in α5DN-expressing ventral midbrain neurons is neither due to an intrinsic inability of this subunit to form functional nAChRs nor to an altered Ca(2+) permeability but likely to intracellular modulation.

Adenosine A2A receptor induces protein kinase A-dependent functional modulation of human (alpha)3(beta)4 nicotinic receptor.

Adenosine modulates the function of nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) in a variety of preparations, possibly through pathways involving protein kinase A (PKA), but these phenomena have not yet been investigated in detail. In this work we studied, using the patch clamp technique, the functional modulation of recombinant human α3ß4 nAChR by the A2A adenosine receptor, co-expressed in HEK cells. Tonic activation of A2A receptor slowed current decay during prolonged applications of nicotine and accelerated receptor recovery from desensitization. Together, these changes resulted into a more sustained current response upon multiple nicotine or ACh applications. These findings were confirmed in cultured mouse superior cervical ganglion neurones, which express nAChR containing the α3 subunit together with ß2 and/or ß4 and A2A receptor. Expression of the A2A receptor in HEK cells also increased the apparent potency of nAChR for nicotine, further supporting a general A2A-induced gain of function for nAChR. These effects were dependent on PKA since the direct activation of PKA mimicked, and its inhibition prevented almost completely, the effects of the A2A receptor. Mutations of R385 and S388 in the cytoplasmic loop of the α3 subunit abolished the functional modulation of nAChR induced by activation of A2A receptor, PKA and other Ser/Thr kinases, suggesting that this region constitutes a putative consensus site for these kinases. These data provide conclusive evidence that activation of the A2A receptor determines functional changes

Mutant human ß4 subunit identified in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients impairs nicotinic receptor function.

Recently identified mutations in the genes encoding the neuronal nicotinic ACh receptor (nAChR) subunits in patients affected by sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (sALS) may represent a factor which enhances disease susceptibility, in particular in association with ambient causes such as cigarette smoking. In this work, we characterize the functional properties of nAChRs containing the ß4R349C subunit, the mutation most frequently encountered in sALS patients. The mutation was coexpressed with wild-type α3 or α4 subunits or with mutant α4R487Q subunit, which has been detected in one patient together with ß4R349C mutation. None of the functional parameters examined showed differences between α4ß4 and α4R487Qß4 nAChRs. By contrast, ß4R349C mutation, independent of the companion α subunit, caused the reduction in potency of both ACh and nicotine, decreased the density of whole-cell current evoked by maximal transmitter concentrations, and altered the kinetics of ACh-evoked whole-cell currents. These data confirm that sALS-associated mutations in nicotinic subunits may markedly perturb cholinergic transmission in individuals bearing the mutations.

Mechanism of verapamil action on wild-type and slow-channel mutant human muscle acetylcholine receptor.

Verapamil, a Ca(2+) channel blocker widely used in clinical practice, also affects the properties of frog and mouse muscle acetylcholine receptor (AChR). Here, we examine the mechanism of action of verapamil on human wild-type and slow-channel mutant muscle AChRs harboring in any subunit a valine-to-alanine mutation of 13' residue of the pore-lining M2 transmembrane segment. Verapamil, after a pre-treatment of 0.5-10 s, accelerated the decay of whole-cell or macroscopic outside-out currents within milliseconds of ACh application even at clinically attainable doses. Recordings of unitary events in the cell-attached and outside-out configurations showed that verapamil does not alter single-channel conductance, but reduces channel open probability, by prolonging the dwell time into the closed state for wild-type and all mutant AChR. The duration of channel openings decreased only for the epsilonV265A-AChR, by shortening the longest exponential component of the open-time distribution. These results provide a rationale for the therapeutic use of verapamil in the slow-channel syndrome and emphasize the major role played by epsilon subunit in controlling the functional properties of human muscle AChR, as revealed by the peculiar alterations imparted by mutations in this subunit.

Rare missense variants of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor altering receptor function are associated with sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (SALS) is a motor neuron degenerative disease of unknown etiology. Current thinking on SALS is that multiple genetic and environmental factors contribute to disease liability. Since neuronal acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are part of the glutamatergic pathway, we searched for sequence variants in CHRNA3, CHRNA4 and CHRNB4 genes, encoding neuronal nicotinic AChR subunits, in 245 SALS patients and in 450 controls. We characterized missense variants by in vitro mutagenesis, cell transfection and electrophysiology. Sequencing the regions encoding the intracellular loop of AChRs subunits disclosed 15 missense variants (6.1%) in 14 patients compared with only six variants (1.3%) in controls (P = 0.001; OR 4.48, 95% CI 1.7-11.8). The frequency of variants in exons encoding extracellular and transmembrane domains and in intronic regions did not differ. NAChRs formed by mutant alpha3 and alpha4 and wild-type (WT) beta4 subunits exhibited altered affinity for nicotine (Nic), reduced use-dependent rundown of Nic-activated currents (I(Nic)) and reduced desensitization leading to sustained intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, in comparison with WT-nAChR. The cellular loop has a crucial importance for receptor trafficking and regulating ion channel properties. Missense variants in this domain are significantly over-represented in SALS patients and alter functional properties of nAChR in vitro, resulting in increased Ca(2+) entry into the cells. We suggest that these gain-of-function variants might contribute to disease liability in a subset of SALS because Ca(2+) signals mediate nAChR's neuromodulatory effects, including regulation of glutamate release and control of cell survival.

Involvement of the plasminogen enzymatic cascade in the reaction to axotomy of rat sympathetic neurons.

Axotomy of superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons is characterized by peripheral regeneration of injured axons and temporary disassembly of the intraganglionic synapses, necessary for synaptic silencing. Both events require remodeling of the extracellular matrix achieved through controlled proteolysis of its components by different enzymatic systems. In this study, we investigate the involvement of the plasminogen enzymatic cascade in the response to axotomy of rat SCG neurons. All components of this proteolytic pathway, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), plasminogen, membrane receptor annexin II and tPA inhibitor (PAI-1), are constitutively expressed in uninjured SCG and increase significantly after SCG neuron axotomy. Immunolocalization of plasminogen, the key protein converted into the enzymatically active plasmin by tPA, in both neurons and non-neuronal cells indicates that all cell types are involved in the response to axotomy. The time course of activation of tPA/plasmin enzymatic pathway suggests its involvement in both intraganglionic synapse remodeling and axonal regeneration.